locality rule (Tennessee) · Go Syfert
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locality rule in Tennessee

43 Tennessee opinions name it 2 courts 1986–2026 3 in the last five years

The cases below were cited by Tennessee courts in a sentence that names this issue. Sides come from how each citing opinion treated the case (Syfertize flag on that citation), so a case can appear on both: that is where the law is contested. A red or yellow chip is the case's own overall treatment.

Followed or applied (25)

CaseFollowedCited
Robinson v. LeCorpsgreen
tenn · 2002 · cited in 8 Tennessee opinions naming this issue, 2006–2015
2 sentences

2015Id. at 722 (excluding the expert‟s testimony after concluding that he failed to satisfy the requirements of the locality rule).

2011Malp.3d § 3.5 (updated 2010), and from courts, see, e.g., Robinson, 83 S.W.3d at 724 ("[W]e encourage the General Assembly to reconsider the current statutory framework of the locality rule.”); Carpenter v. Klepper, 205 S.W.3d 474, 484 (Tenn.Ct.App.2006) ("The legislatively mandated ‘similar locality rule’ has long since outlived its usefulness,” and "We ... implore the Legislature to relegate the ‘similar locality rule’ to the 'ash heap’ of history.”); see also Shilkret v. Annapolis Emergency Hosp.

78
Sutphin v. Plattgreen
tenn · 1986 · cited in 6 Tennessee opinions naming this issue, 2004–2012
2 sentences

2012Estate of French, 333 S.W.3d at 562 (quoting Sutphin v. Platt, 720 S.W.2d 455, 457 (Tenn.1986); Conley v. Life Care Ctrs. of Am., 236 S.W.3d 713, 734 (Tenn. Ct. App. 2007)).

2011See Conley, 236 S.W.3d at 734 (quoting Sutphin, 720 S.W.2d at 457 (“The United States of America fails to qualify as ‘a particular geographic region.’ ”)); Hawkins v. Hendersonville Operating Co., 364 N.C. 434 , 690 S.E.2d 35, 40 (App.2010) (affirming the exclusion of expert testimony regarding the standard of care under federal nursing home regulations, because to admit it would violate the locality rule in North Carolina medical malpractice actions).

66
Donna Faye Shipley v. Robin Williamsgreen
tenn · 2011 · cited in 9 Tennessee opinions naming this issue, 2011–2026
2 sentences

2025The trial court also denied a request from Ms. Bowen to continue the case 4 As the Tennessee Supreme Court has explained, “the locality rule requires that the claimant [in a medical negligence claim] demonstrate ‘[t]he recognized standard of acceptable professional practice . . . in the community in which the defendant practices or in a similar community.’” Shipley v. Williams, 350 S.W.3d 527, 552 (Tenn. 2011) (quoting Tenn. Code Ann. § 29-26-115 (a)(1)). 5 The trial court stated that it relied on the defendants’ memorandum of law and “the entire record in this cause” when it determined the te

2025Thus, “[i]n evaluating an expert, the trial court must also consider the requirements of the locality rule.” Thibault, 2022 WL 14162828 at *4 (citing Shipley, 350 S.W.3d at 551 ). “[T]he locality rule requires that the claimant demonstrate ‘[t]he recognized standard of acceptable professional practice . . . in the community in which the defendant practices or in a similar community.’” Shipley, 350 S.W.3d at 552 (quoting Tenn. Code Ann. § 29-26-115 (a)(1)).

59
Bravo Ex Rel. Gamboa v. Sumner Regional Health Systems, Inc.green
tennctapp · 2004 · cited in 6 Tennessee opinions naming this issue, 2006–2011
2 sentences

2011In Bravo v. Sumner Reg’l Health Sys., Inc., 148 S.W.3d 357 (Tenn.Ct.App.2003), the defendant, a doctor practicing in Galla-tin, argued that the affidavit of the plaintiffs’ expert, who practiced in Georgia, did not satisfy the requirements of the locality rule.

2011In Bravo v. Sumner Reg’l Health Sys., Inc., 148 S.W.3d 357 (Tenn. Ct. App. 2003), the defendant, a doctor practicing in Gallatin, argued that the affidavit of the plaintiffs’ expert, who practiced in Georgia, did not satisfy the requirements of the locality rule.

56
Carpenter v. Kleppergreen
tennctapp · 2006 · cited in 5 Tennessee opinions naming this issue, 2009–2011
2 sentences

2011In Carpenter v. Klepper, 205 S.W.3d 474 (Tenn.Ct.App.2006), the court held that two expert medical witnesses called to testify by the defendants were not qualified under the locality rule.

2011Malp.3d § 3.5 (updated 2010), and from courts, see, e.g., Robinson, 83 S.W.3d at 724 ("[W]e encourage the General Assembly to reconsider the current statutory framework of the locality rule.”); Carpenter v. Klepper, 205 S.W.3d 474, 484 (Tenn.Ct.App.2006) ("The legislatively mandated ‘similar locality rule’ has long since outlived its usefulness,” and "We ... implore the Legislature to relegate the ‘similar locality rule’ to the 'ash heap’ of history.”); see also Shilkret v. Annapolis Emergency Hosp.

45
Mabon v. Jackson-Madison County General Hospitalgreen
tennctapp · 1997 · cited in 7 Tennessee opinions naming this issue, 2001–2011
2 sentences

2010If the plaintiff is attempting to prove the standard of care under the second option, that is, that the expert is familiar with the standard of care in a similar community, the 'similar community, must be “shown to he similar to the defendant’s community.” Id. at 724 (emphasis original); see also Mahon v. Jackson-Madison County General Hosp., 968 S.W.2d 826, 831 (Tenn.Ct.App.1997) (“A plaintiff who chooses to prove the standard of care in a similar community must prove that community is similar to the one in which the defendant practices.”) “Establishing the similarities in communities is as m

2010If the plaintiff is attempting to prove the standard of care under the second option, that is, that the expert is familiar with the standard of care in a similar community, the similar community, must be " shown to be similar to the defendant's community." Id. at 724 (emphasis original); see also Mabon v. Jackson-Madison County General Hosp., 968 S.W.2d 826, 831 (Tenn.Ct.App.1997) ("A plaintiff who chooses to prove the standard of care in a similar community must prove that community is similar to the one in which the defendant practices.") "Establishing the similarities in communities is as m

37
Conley v. Life Care Centers of America, Inc.green
tennctapp · 2007 · cited in 3 Tennessee opinions naming this issue, 2011–2012
2 sentences

2012Estate of French, 333 S.W.3d at 562 (quoting Sutphin v. Platt, 720 S.W.2d 455, 457 (Tenn.1986); Conley v. Life Care Ctrs. of Am., 236 S.W.3d 713, 734 (Tenn. Ct. App. 2007)).

2011See Conley, 236 S.W.3d at 734 (quoting Sutphin, 720 S.W.2d at 457 (“The United States of America fails to qualify as ‘a particular geographic region.’ ”)); Hawkins v. Hendersonville Operating Co., 364 N.C. 434 , 690 S.E.2d 35, 40 (App.2010) (affirming the exclusion of expert testimony regarding the standard of care under federal nursing home regulations, because to admit it would violate the locality rule in North Carolina medical malpractice actions).

33
Underwood v. Waterslides of Mid-America, Inc.green
tennctapp · 1991 · cited in 3 Tennessee opinions naming this issue, 1994–2005
2 sentences

2005Underwood v. Waterslides of Mid-America, Inc. 823 S.W.2d 171, 182-3 (Tenn. Ct. App. 1991); Anthony v. Felknor & Cunningham, C.A.

1994The Dooley Court said that “once a duty is established, the scope of the duty or the standard of care is a question of fact to be decided by the trier of fact.” This Court in Underwood v. WaterSlides of Mid-America, Inc., et al., 823 S.W.2d 171 (Tenn.App.1991) rejected a strict locality rule for establishing the standard of care for engineers.

23
Chapman v. Bearfieldgreen
tenn · 2006 · cited in 2 Tennessee opinions naming this issue, 2011–2011
2 sentences

2011In 1975, the Tennessee General Assembly codified what we now refer to as the “locality rule” when it enacted the Medical Malpractice Review Board and Claims Act of 1975. 23 As a result, the locality rule became a “creature of statute,” Chapman v. Bearfield, 207 S.W.3d 736, 740 (Tenn.2006), and the “hallmark of medical malpractice cases.” Andrew T.

2011In 1975, the Tennessee General Assembly codified what we now refer to as the “locality rule” when it enacted the Medical Malpractice Review Board and Claims Act of 1975.23 As a result, the locality rule became a “creature of statute,” Chapman v. Bearfield, 207 S.W.3d 736, 740 (Tenn. 2006), and the “hallmark of medical malpractice cases.” Andrew T.

22
Tuetken v. Tuetkengreen
tenn · 2010 · cited in 2 Tennessee opinions naming this issue, 2011–2011
2 sentences

2011Cf. Tuetken v. Tuetken, 320 S.W.3d 262, 268 (Tenn.2010); Nichols v. Jack Cooper Transp.

2011Cf. Tuetken v. Tuetken, 320 S.W.3d 262, 268 (Tenn. 2010); Nichols v. Jack Cooper Transp.

22
Stovall v. Clarkegreen
tenn · 2003 · cited in 6 Tennessee opinions naming this issue, 2009–2019
2 sentences

2011A year later, in Stovall v. Clarke, this Court considered the propriety of the trial court’s summary judgment in favor of two medical malpractice defendants and provided further guidance regarding the application of the locality rule. 113 S.W.3d 715, 722-23 (Tenn.2003).

2011A year later, in Stovall v. Clarke, this Court considered the propriety of the trial court’s summary judgment in favor of two medical malpractice defendants and provided further guidance regarding the application of the locality rule. 113 S.W.3d 715, 722-23 (Tenn. 2003).

16
McCay Ex Rel. McCay v. Mitchellgreen
tennctapp · 1970 · cited in 2 Tennessee opinions naming this issue, 1986–2011
2 sentences

1986Although cases decided prior to the enactment of T.C.A. § 29-26-115(b) indicated that the locality rule had been somewhat eroded, McCay v. Mitchell, 62 Tenn.App. 424 , 463 S.W.2d 710 (1970), this statute reaffirmed that the locality rule was still the measure for the competency of a witness in a malpractice case.

1986Although cases decided prior to the enactment of T.C.A. § 29-26-115(b) indicated that the locality rule had been somewhat eroded, McCay v. Mitchell, 62 Tenn.App. 424 , 463 S.W.2d 710 (1970), this statute reaffirmed that the locality rule was still the measure for the competency of a witness in a malpractice case.

12
Ward v. Glovergreen
tennctapp · 2006 · cited in 1 Tennessee opinions naming this issue, 2012–2012
1 sentence

2012See Ward, 206 S.W.3d at 37 .

11
Brune v. Belinkoffgreen
mass · 1968 · cited in 1 Tennessee opinions naming this issue, 2011–2011
2 sentences

2011King, Jr., The Standard of Care and Informed Consent Under the Tennessee Medical Malpractice Act, 44 Tenn. L.Rev. 225, 256-57 (1977); see, e.g., Small v. Howard, 128 Mass. 131, 136 (1880) (overruled by Brune v. Belinkoff, 354 Mass. 102 , 235 N.E.2d 793, 798 (1968)). 6 As our society became more interconnected with improved transportation and communications, the strict locality rule gave way to a more relaxed modified locality rule in many states, including Tennessee.

2011King, Jr., The Standard of Care and Informed Consent Under the Tennessee Medical Malpractice Act, 44 Tenn. L.Rev. 225, 256-57 (1977); see, e.g., Small v. Howard, 128 Mass. 131, 136 (1880) (overruled by Brune v. Belinkoff, 354 Mass. 102 , 235 N.E.2d 793, 798 (1968)). 6 As our society became more interconnected with improved transportation and communications, the strict locality rule gave way to a more relaxed modified locality rule in many states, including Tennessee.

11
Totty v. Thompsongreen
tennctapp · 2003 · cited in 1 Tennessee opinions naming this issue, 2011–2011
2 sentences

2011We agree with the Court of Appeals’ observation in Totty v. Thompson, 121 S.W.3d 676, 679 (Tenn.Ct.App.2003), that “[f]ew areas of American Jurisprudence have been more challenging through the years than the development of the standard of care applicable in medical malpractice cases.” This Court first considered a challenge to the qualifications of a claimant’s expert under the locality rule in Searle v. Bryant, 713 S.W.2d 62 (Tenn.1986).

2011We agree with the Court of Appeals’ observation in Totty v. Thompson, 121 S.W.3d 676, 679 (Tenn. Ct. App. 2003), that “[f]ew areas of American Jurisprudence have been more challenging through the years than the development of the standard of care applicable in medical malpractice cases.” This Court first considered a challenge to the qualifications of a claimant’s expert under the locality rule in Searle v. Bryant, 713 S.W.2d 62 (Tenn. 1986).

11
Small v. Howardred
mass · 1880 · cited in 1 Tennessee opinions naming this issue, 2011–2011
2 sentences

2011King, Jr., The Standard of Care and Informed Consent Under the Tennessee Medical Malpractice Act, 44 Tenn. L.Rev. 225, 256-57 (1977); see, e.g., Small v. Howard, 128 Mass. 131, 136 (1880) (overruled by Brune v. Belinkoff, 354 Mass. 102 , 235 N.E.2d 793, 798 (1968)). 6 As our society became more interconnected with improved transportation and communications, the strict locality rule gave way to a more relaxed modified locality rule in many states, including Tennessee.

2011Rev. 225 , 256-57 (1977); see, e.g., Small v. Howard, 128 Mass. 131, 136 (1880) (overruled by Brune v. Belinkoff, 235 N.E.2d 793,798 (Mass. 1968)).6 As our society became more interconnected with improved transportation and communications, the strict locality rule gave way to a more relaxed modified locality rule in many states, including Tennessee.

11
Roberts v. Bicknellgreen
tennctapp · 2001 · cited in 1 Tennessee opinions naming this issue, 2011–2011
2 sentences

2011Roberts v. Bicknell, 73 S.W.3d 106, 114 (Tenn. Ct. App. 2001) (emphasis added).

2011Id.; see also Roberts, 73 S.W.3d at 113 .

11
Hawkins v. SSC HENDERSONVILLE OPERATING CO.green
ncctapp · 2010 · cited in 1 Tennessee opinions naming this issue, 2011–2011
2 sentences

2011See Conley, 236 S.W.3d at 734 (quoting Sutphin, 720 S.W.2d at 457 (“The United States of America fails to qualify as ‘a particular geographic region.’ ”)); Hawkins v. Hendersonville Operating Co., 364 N.C. 434 , 690 S.E.2d 35, 40 (App.2010) (affirming the exclusion of expert testimony regarding the standard of care under federal nursing home regulations, because to admit it would violate the locality rule in North Carolina medical malpractice actions).

2011See Conley, 236 S.W.3d at 734 (quoting Sutphin, 720 S.W.2d at 457 (“The United States of America fails to qualify as ‘a particular geographic region.’ ”)); Hawkins v. Hendersonville Operating Co., 364 N.C. 434 , 690 S.E.2d 35, 40 (App.2010) (affirming the exclusion of expert testimony regarding the standard of care under federal nursing home regulations, because to admit it would violate the locality rule in North Carolina medical malpractice actions).

11
Shilkret v. Annapolis Emergency Hospital Ass'ngreen
md · 1975 · cited in 1 Tennessee opinions naming this issue, 2011–2011
2 sentences

2011Ass’n, 276 Md. 187 , 349 A.2d 245, 252 (1975) (reviewing rationales for locality rules and a national standard of medical care, and concluding that "justification for the locality rules no longer exists”). .

2011Ass’n, 276 Md. 187 , 349 A.2d 245, 252 (1975) (reviewing rationales for locality rules and a national standard of medical care, and concluding that "justification for the locality rules no longer exists”). .

11
Kennedy v. Holdergreen
tennctapp · 1999 · cited in 1 Tennessee opinions naming this issue, 2010–2010
1 sentence

2010Grisham, 2009 WL 275667 at *3 (holding that the expert did not meet the locality requirement when he 6 There is an exception to the requirement for expert proof when the “alleged acts of negligence are so obvious that they come within the common knowledge of laymen.” Kennedy v. Holder, 1 S.W.3d 670, 672 (Tenn. Ct. App. 1999).

11
Williams v. Baptist Memorial Hospitalgreen
tenn · 2006 · cited in 1 Tennessee opinions naming this issue, 2010–2010
1 sentence

2010To testify as a medical expert, “[e]xpert witnesses may not simply assert their familiarity with the standard of professional care in the defendant’s community without indicating the basis for their familiarity.” Williams v. Baptist Memorial Hosp., 193 S.W.3d 545, 553 (Tenn.2006) (citations omitted).

11
Martin v. Barge, Waggoner, Sumner & Cannongreen
tennctapp · 1994 · cited in 1 Tennessee opinions naming this issue, 2007–2007
11
Ralph Ex Rel. Ralph v. Nagygreen
tnmd · 1990 · cited in 1 Tennessee opinions naming this issue, 2006–2006
11
Martin v. Sizemoregreen
tennctapp · 2001 · cited in 1 Tennessee opinions naming this issue, 2005–2005
11
Hathorn v. Richmondgreen
· 1876 · cited in 1 Tennessee opinions naming this issue, 2003–2003
11

Distinguished, questioned or overruled (1)

CaseNegativeCited
Small v. Howardred
mass · 1880 · cited in 1 Tennessee opinions naming this issue, 2011–2011
2 sentences

2011King, Jr., The Standard of Care and Informed Consent Under the Tennessee Medical Malpractice Act, 44 Tenn. L.Rev. 225, 256-57 (1977); see, e.g., Small v. Howard, 128 Mass. 131, 136 (1880) (overruled by Brune v. Belinkoff, 354 Mass. 102 , 235 N.E.2d 793, 798 (1968)). 6 As our society became more interconnected with improved transportation and communications, the strict locality rule gave way to a more relaxed modified locality rule in many states, including Tennessee.

2011Rev. 225 , 256-57 (1977); see, e.g., Small v. Howard, 128 Mass. 131, 136 (1880) (overruled by Brune v. Belinkoff, 235 N.E.2d 793,798 (Mass. 1968)).6 As our society became more interconnected with improved transportation and communications, the strict locality rule gave way to a more relaxed modified locality rule in many states, including Tennessee.

11

Also cited on this issue (15)

CaseCitedYears
Pyle by Pyle v. Morrison green
tennctapp · 1986
2 sentences

2012Id. at 932 .

2006The plaintiffs also rely on Pyle v. Morrison, 716 S.W.2d 930 (Tenn.Ct.App.1986), in which the trial court waived the locality rule to admit the testimony of an expert witness from Maryland when the plaintiff already had one expert witness from a bordering state.

22006–2012
Estate of Martha S. French v. Stratford House green
tenn · 2011
2 sentences

2012Estate of French, 333 S.W.3d at 562 (quoting Sutphin v. Platt, 720 S.W.2d 455, 457 (Tenn.1986); Conley v. Life Care Ctrs. of Am., 236 S.W.3d 713, 734 (Tenn. Ct. App. 2007)).

2012Estate of French, 333 S.W.3d at 562 (quoting Sutphin v. Platt, 720 S.W.2d 455, 457 (Tenn. 1986) and Conley v. Life Care Ctrs. of Am., 236 S.W.3d 713, 734 (Tenn. Ct. App. 2007)).

22012–2012
Rose v. H.C.A. Health Services of Tennessee, Inc. green
tennctapp · 1996
1 sentence

2013This Court affirmed the trial court’s ruling that the plaintiffs had “‘failed to make sufficient showing of non availability [sic] of other experts to allow for the admissibility of the affidavit of Dr. Arthur Kaufman pursuant to T.C.A. § 29–26–115(b).’” Id. (holding that the plaintiffs had failed to establish that “waiver of the locality rule was warranted” or that “appropriate witnesses otherwise would not be available.”) Similarly, in this case, we determine that the efforts of defense counsel reflect “only a cursory effort to find an appropriate expert from Tennessee or a contiguous border

12013–2013
Crook v. KRC MANAGEMENT CORP. neutral
nc · 2010
2 sentences

2011See Conley, 236 S.W.3d at 734 (quoting Sutphin, 720 S.W.2d at 457 (“The United States of America fails to qualify as ‘a particular geographic region.’ ”)); Hawkins v. Hendersonville Operating Co., 364 N.C. 434 , 690 S.E.2d 35, 40 (App.2010) (affirming the exclusion of expert testimony regarding the standard of care under federal nursing home regulations, because to admit it would violate the locality rule in North Carolina medical malpractice actions).

2011See Conley, 236 S.W.3d at 734 (quoting Sutphin, 720 S.W.2d at 457 (“The United States of America fails to qualify as ‘a particular geographic region.’ ”)); Hawkins v. Hendersonville Operating Co., 364 N.C. 434 , 690 S.E.2d 35, 40 (App.2010) (affirming the exclusion of expert testimony regarding the standard of care under federal nursing home regulations, because to admit it would violate the locality rule in North Carolina medical malpractice actions).

12011–2011
Johnson v. Richardson green
tennctapp · 2010
1 sentence

2011In the recent case of Johnson v. Richardson, No. W2009-02626-COA-R3-CV, 2010 WL 3187048 (Tenn. Ct. App. Aug. 12, 2010), perm. app. denied (Tenn. Feb. 16, 2011), a case very similar in fact to the one at bar, this Court reviewed the trial court’s exclusion of the plaintiff’s Springfield, Missouri expert, Dr. Sheppard.

12011–2011
Searle v. Bryant green
tenn · 1986
2 sentences

2011We agree with the Court of Appeals’ observation in Totty v. Thompson, 121 S.W.3d 676, 679 (Tenn.Ct.App.2003), that “[f]ew areas of American Jurisprudence have been more challenging through the years than the development of the standard of care applicable in medical malpractice cases.” This Court first considered a challenge to the qualifications of a claimant’s expert under the locality rule in Searle v. Bryant, 713 S.W.2d 62 (Tenn.1986).

2011We agree with the Court of Appeals’ observation in Totty v. Thompson, 121 S.W.3d 676, 679 (Tenn. Ct. App. 2003), that “[f]ew areas of American Jurisprudence have been more challenging through the years than the development of the standard of care applicable in medical malpractice cases.” This Court first considered a challenge to the qualifications of a claimant’s expert under the locality rule in Searle v. Bryant, 713 S.W.2d 62 (Tenn. 1986).

12011–2011
Eckler v. Allen green
tennctapp · 2006
2 sentences

2011In Eckler v. Allen, 231 S.W.3d 379 (Tenn.Ct.App.2006), the Court of Appeals added a novel and significant layer of analysis to the issue of qualification of medical experts under the locality rule.

2011In Eckler v. Allen, 231 S.W.3d 379 (Tenn. Ct. App. 2006), the Court of Appeals added a novel and significant layer of analysis to the issue of qualification of medical experts under the locality rule.

12011–2011
White v. Premier Medical Group green
tennctapp · 2007
1 sentence

2008Discussion The recent case of White v. Premier Medical Group, 254 S.W.3d 411 (Tenn.Ct.App., 2007) 1 involved the propriety of a jury instruction in a medical malpractice case.

12008–2008
Dooley v. Everett green
tennctapp · 1990
2 sentences

2007Martin v. Barge, 894 S.W.2d 750, 751 (Tenn.Ct.App.1994) (citing Dooley v. Everett, 805 S.W.2d 380 (Tenn. Ct.App.1991)).

2007Martin v. Barge, 894 S.W.2d 750, 751 (Tenn.Ct.App.1994) (citing Dooley v. Everett, 805 S.W.2d 380 (Tenn.Ct.App.1991)).

12007–2007
Steele v. Ft. Sanders Anesthesia Group, P.C. green
tennctapp · 1994
12006–2006
Childress v. Bennett green
tenn · 1991
12006–2006
Spalding v. Davis green
tenn · 1984
12005–2005
Tefft v. Wilcox green
kan · 1870
12003–2003
Smothers v. Hanks green
iowa · 1872
12003–2003
Franz v. Board of Medical Quality Assurance green
cal · 1982
11998–1998

Statutes the citing opinions construe

TN § Tenn. Code Ann. § 29-26-115 (42) TN § Tenn. Code Ann. § 29-16-115 (6) TN § Tenn. Code Ann. § 29-26-121 (3)

Counted by distinct opinions that both name this issue and are annotated to the section; sections every opinion cites regardless of issue are not filtered here, so read the counts against the total above.

Where else courts name it

TN 43 (1986–2026) LA 39 (1978–2017) IL 18 (1976–2002) NY 15 (1923–2025) TX 14 (1979–2015) AR 12 (1976–2026) NE 12 (1980–2024) MS 12 (1982–1992) MI 10 (1976–2019) WV 7 (1982–2020) WI 6 (1973–1996) MD 5 (1975–2025) OK 5 (1982–1995) IN 5 (1987–2014) DC 5 (1967–1996) AL 4 (1980–1993) WY 4 (1989–2002) PA 4 (1971–2015) NV 3 (1979–1993) CA 3 (1980–2023) GA 3 (1983–1989) MT 3 (1985–1993) DE 3 (1982–2025) FL 3 (1961–1997) SC 3 (1984–2004) RI 3 (1992–2015) WA 3 (1972–2007) CO 3 (1900–1993) SD 2 (1988–2014) IA 2 (1976–2004) OH 2 (1975–1986) NM 2 (1977–1994) KS 2 (1968–2013) MO 2 (1980–2007) UT 2 (1905–1981) NC 2 (1974–2013)

Opinions by the citing court's state. A doctrine retained in one state and abandoned in another shows up here as a year span that stalls.

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