42 U.S.C. § 1981a

Damages in cases of intentional discrimination in employment

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(a) Right of recovery(1) Civil rights

In an action brought by a complaining party under section 706 or 717 of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 [42 U.S.C. 2000e–5, 2000e–16] against a respondent who engaged in unlawful intentional discrimination (not an employment practice that is unlawful because of its disparate impact) prohibited under section 703, 704, or 717 of the Act [42 U.S.C. 2000e–2, 2000e–3, 2000e–16], and provided that the complaining party cannot recover under section 1981 of this title, the complaining party may recover compensatory and punitive damages as allowed in subsection (b), in addition to any relief authorized by section 706(g) of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, from the respondent.

(2) Disability

In an action brought by a complaining party under the powers, remedies, and procedures set forth in section 706 or 717 of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 [42 U.S.C. 2000e–5, 2000e–16] (as provided in section 107(a) of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (42 U.S.C. 12117(a)), and section 794a(a)(1) of title 29, respectively) against a respondent who engaged in unlawful intentional discrimination (not an employment practice that is unlawful because of its disparate impact) under section 791 of title 29 and the regulations implementing section 791 of title 29, or who violated the requirements of section 791 of title 29 or the regulations implementing section 791 of title 29 concerning the provision of a reasonable accommodation, or section 102 of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (42 U.S.C. 12112), or committed a violation of section 102(b)(5) of the Act, against an individual, the complaining party may recover compensatory and punitive damages as allowed in subsection (b), in addition to any relief authorized by section 706(g) of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, from the respondent.

(3) Reasonable accommodation and good faith effort

In cases where a discriminatory practice involves the provision of a reasonable accommodation pursuant to section 102(b)(5) of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 [42 U.S.C. 12112(b)(5)] or regulations implementing section 791 of title 29, damages may not be awarded under this section where the covered entity demonstrates good faith efforts, in consultation with the person with the disability who has informed the covered entity that accommodation is needed, to identify and make a reasonable accommodation that would provide such individual with an equally effective opportunity and would not cause an undue hardship on the operation of the business.

(b) Compensatory and punitive damages(1) Determination of punitive damages

A complaining party may recover punitive damages under this section against a respondent (other than a government, government agency or political subdivision) if the complaining party demonstrates that the respondent engaged in a discriminatory practice or discriminatory practices with malice or with reckless indifference to the federally protected rights of an aggrieved individual.

(2) Exclusions from compensatory damages

Compensatory damages awarded under this section shall not include backpay, interest on backpay, or any other type of relief authorized under section 706(g) of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 [42 U.S.C. 2000e–5(g)].

(3) LimitationsThe sum of the amount of compensatory damages awarded under this section for future pecuniary losses, emotional pain, suffering, inconvenience, mental anguish, loss of enjoyment of life, and other nonpecuniary losses, and the amount of punitive damages awarded under this section, shall not exceed, for each complaining party—(A) in the case of a respondent who has more than 14 and fewer than 101 employees in each of 20 or more calendar weeks in the current or preceding calendar year, $50,000;(B) in the case of a respondent who has more than 100 and fewer than 201 employees in each of 20 or more calendar weeks in the current or preceding calendar year, $100,000; and(C) in the case of a respondent who has more than 200 and fewer than 501 employees in each of 20 or more calendar weeks in the current or preceding calendar year, $200,000; and(D) in the case of a respondent who has more than 500 employees in each of 20 or more calendar weeks in the current or preceding calendar year, $300,000.(4) Construction

Nothing in this section shall be construed to limit the scope of, or the relief available under, section 1981 of this title.

(c) Jury trialIf a complaining party seeks compensatory or punitive damages under this section—(1) any party may demand a trial by jury; and(2) the court shall not inform the jury of the limitations described in subsection (b)(3).(d) DefinitionsAs used in this section:(1) Complaining partyThe term “complaining party” means—(A) in the case of a person seeking to bring an action under subsection (a)(1), the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, the Attorney General, or a person who may bring an action or proceeding under title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (42 U.S.C. 2000e et seq.); or(B) in the case of a person seeking to bring an action under subsection (a)(2), the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, the Attorney General, a person who may bring an action or proceeding under section 794a(a)(1) of title 29, or a person who may bring an action or proceeding under title I of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 [42 U.S.C. 12111 et seq.].(2) Discriminatory practice

The term “discriminatory practice” means the discrimination described in paragraph (1), or the discrimination or the violation described in paragraph (2), of subsection (a).

(R.S. § 1977A, as added Pub. L. 102–166, title I, § 102, Nov. 21, 1991, 105 Stat. 1072.)Editorial NotesReferences in Text

The Civil Rights Act of 1964, referred to in subsec. (d)(1)(A), is Pub. L. 88–352, July 2, 1964, 78 Stat. 241. Title VII of the Act is classified generally to subchapter VI (§ 2000e et seq.) of this chapter. For complete classification of this Act to the Code, see Short Title note set out under section 2000a of this title and Tables.

The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, referred to in subsec. (d)(1)(B), is Pub. L. 101–336, July 26, 1990, 104 Stat. 327. Title I of the Act is classified generally to subchapter I (§ 12111 et seq.) of chapter 126 of this title. For complete classification of this Act to the Code, see Short Title note set out under section 12101 of this title and Tables.

Statutory Notes and Related SubsidiariesEffective Date

Section effective Nov. 21, 1991, except as otherwise provided, see section 402 of Pub. L. 102–166, set out as an Effective Date of 1991 Amendment note under section 1981 of this title.

Notes of Decisions

Cited in 2,582 cases (472 in the last 5 years), 1992–2026 · leading case: Channon v. United Parcel Serv., Inc., 629 N.W.2d 835 (Iowa 2001).

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Channon v. United Parcel Serv., Inc., 629 N.W.2d 835 (Iowa 2001). · cites it 23× “Linda Rae Channon appeals from a district court’s posttrial ruling that imposed caps pursuant to 42 U.S.C. § 1981a on compensatory and punitive damages a jury awarded her against her employer United Parcel Service, Inc.”

Carleen Black v. Pan Am. Labs., 646 F.3d 254 (5th Cir. 2011). · cites it 20× “3 See 42 U.S.C. § 1981a)(b)(3); TEX. LAB. CODE § 21.”

Salveson v. Douglas Cnty., 2001 WI 100 (Wis. 2001). · cites it 23× “Salveson brought a lawsuit against Douglas County and Collyard on June 17, 1996, alleging violations and seeking damages under Title VII as amended by the Civil Rights Act of 1991, 42 U.S.C. § 1981a. She also raised numerous other claims.”

Kolstad v. Am. Dental Assn., 527 U.S. 526 (1999). · cites it 10× “Courts of Appeals, too, have relied on these liability limits in interpreting 42 U. S. C. § 1981a. See, e. g., Dudley v.”

Jin Ku Kim, Appellant/cross-Appellee v. Nash Finch Co., Appellee/cross-Appellant, 123 F.3d 1046 (8th Cir. 1997). · cites it 14× “3d 1431, 1437 (1997) (holding standard of proof for punitive damages under 42 U.S.C. § 1981a is the same as that previously established for punitive damages under 42 U.”

Equal Emp. Opportunity Comm'n v. Waffle House, Inc., 534 U.S. 279 (2002). · cites it 6× “1072 , 42 U. S. C. § 1981a (1994 ed.). Baker is not a party to the case.”

Sheila White, Plaintiff-Appellee/cross-Appellant v. Burlington N. & Santa Fe Ry. Co., Defendant-Appellant/cross-Appellee, 364 F.3d 789 (6th Cir. 2004). · cites it 7× “42 U.S.C. §§ 1981a(b); 2000e-5(g), (k). Although Burlington Northern argues that it made White whole when it granted her back pay, Congress has declared that part of making a Title VII plaintiff whole is compensating her for interest on the back pay, attorney’s fees, and…”

Equal Emp. Opportunity Comm'n v. Boh Bros. Constr. Co., 731 F.3d 444 (5th Cir. 2013). · cites it 8× “” 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(b)(1). This is a higher standard than the showing necessary for compensatory damages, satisfied in “only a subset of cases involving intentional discrimination.”

West v. Gibson, 527 U.S. 212 (1999). · cites it 12× “Unlike § 717(b), 42 U. S. C. § 1981a does authorize awards of compensatory damages against the United States.”

Stanley D. Dowd & Richard Brown, Jr. v. United Steelworkers of Am., Local No. 286, 253 F.3d 1093 (8th Cir. 2001). · cites it 11× “§ 1981a(b) provides in relevant part; (3) Limitations The sum of the amount of compensatory damages awarded under this section for future pecuniary losses, emotional pain, suffering, inconvenience, mental anguish, loss of enjoyment of life, and other nonpecuniary losses, and the…”

Faragher v. City of Boca Raton, 524 U.S. 775 (1998). · cites it 4× “1072 , 42 U. S. C. § 1981a; see Keene Corp. v. United States, 508 U.”

Dukes v. Wal-Mart, Inc., 509 F.3d 1168 (9th Cir. 2007). · cites it 8× “It is unlikely the Congress that approved both Rule 23(b)(2) and 42 U.S.C. § 1981a intended to put discrimination victims to such a choice.”

Show all 2,582 citing cases →

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(1) — 5 cases

Equal Emp't Opportunity Comm'n v. Costco Wholesale Corp., 903 F.3d 618 (7th Cir. 2018).

Patrick McGinnis v. Kentucky Fried Chicken of California, 42 F.3d 1273 (9th Cir. 1994).

EEOC v. Costco Wholesale Corp. (7th Cir. 2018).

Riesgo v. Heidelberg Harris, Inc. (D.N.H. 1997).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(1)(2) — 1 case

Dawson v. Burnett, 631 F. Supp. 2d 878 (W.D. Mich. 2009).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(2) — 10 cases

Equal Emp. Opportunity Comm'n v. Fedex Ground Package Sys., Inc., 158 F. Supp. 3d 393 (W.D. Pa. 2016).

Hernandez v. City of Hartford, 959 F. Supp. 125 (D. Conn. 1997).

Ostrach v. Regents of the Univ. of California, 957 F. Supp. 196 (E.D. Cal. 1997).

Schmidt v. Solis, 891 F. Supp. 2d 72 (D.D.C. 2012).

Passantino v. Johnson & Johnson Consum. Prods., Inc., 212 F.3d 493 (9th Cir. 2000).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(3) — 9 cases

Kentucky Dep't of Corr. v. McCullough, 123 S.W.3d 130 (Ky. 2004).

Michael J. OLMSTED, Plaintiff-Appellant, v. TACO BELL Corp., Defendant-Appellee, 141 F.3d 1457 (11th Cir. 1998).

Olmsted v. Emmanuel, 783 So. 2d 1122 (Fla. 1st DCA 2001).

Hall v. Claussen, 6 F. App'x 655 (10th Cir. 2001).

ROSADO-SOSTRE v. Turabo Testing, Inc., 364 F. Supp. 2d 144 (D.P.R. 2005).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(3)(A) — 2 cases

Equal Emp. Opportunity Comm'n v. Grane Healthcare Co., 2 F. Supp. 3d 667 (W.D. Pa. 2014).

Porter v. 1st Choice After Sch. Kare (D. Colo. 2021).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(3)(C) — 1 case

Nolasco v. Solaris Paper (E.D. Va. 2025).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(3)(D) — 5 cases

Giles v. Gen. Elec. Co., 245 F.3d 474 (5th Cir. 2001).

Michael J. OLMSTED, Plaintiff-Appellant, v. TACO BELL Corp., Defendant-Appellee, 141 F.3d 1457 (11th Cir. 1998).

Vance v. Union Planters Corp (5th Cir. 2002).

Olmsted v. Taco Bell Corp. (11th Cir. 1998).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(3)(b) — 1 case

Knowlton v. Teltrust Phones, Inc., 189 F.3d 1177 (10th Cir. 1999).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(4) — 1 case

Copley v. Bax Global, Inc., 97 F. Supp. 2d 1164 (S.D. Fla. 2000).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(B)(3) — 1 case

Williams v. Pharmacia Opthalmics, Inc., 926 F. Supp. 791 (N.D. Ind. 1996).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(B)(3)(A) — 1 case

Dufresne v. J D Fields & Co Inc (5th Cir. 2003).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(C) — 1 case

Rivera v. Nat'l Westminster Bank USA, 801 F. Supp. 1123 (S.D.N.Y. 1992).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(a) — 70 cases

Landgraf v. USI Film Prods., 511 U.S. 244 (1994).

Repub. of Austria v. Altmann, 541 U.S. 677 (2004).

Dukes v. Wal-Mart, Inc., 509 F.3d 1168 (9th Cir. 2007). “It is unlikely the Congress that approved both Rule 23(b)(2) and 42 U.S.C. § 1981a intended to put discrimination victims to such a choice.”

Carleen Black v. Pan Am. Labs., 646 F.3d 254 (5th Cir. 2011). “3 See 42 U.S.C. § 1981a)(b)(3); TEX. LAB. CODE § 21.”

Lawrence L. Pedigo v. P.A.M. Transp., Inc., Am. Trucking Associations, Inc., & Arkansas Motor Carriers Associations, Inc., Amici Curiae, 60 F.3d 1300 (8th Cir. 1995).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(a)(1) — 131 cases

Burlington N. & Santa Fe Ry. Co. v. White, 548 U.S. 53 (2006).

West v. Gibson, 527 U.S. 212 (1999). “Unlike § 717(b), 42 U. S. C. § 1981a does authorize awards of compensatory damages against the United States.”

Pennsylvania State Police v. Suders, 542 U.S. 129 (2004).

Dailey v. North Coast Life Ins. Co., 919 P.2d 589 (Wash. 1996).

Equal Emp't Opportunity Comm'n v. Abercrombie & Fitch Stores, Inc., 135 S. Ct. 2028 (2015).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(a)(1995) — 1 case

Codrington v. Virgin Islands Port Auth., 911 F. Supp. 907 (D.V.I. 1996).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(a)(2) — 119 cases

Equal Emp. Opportunity Comm'n v. Waffle House, Inc., 534 U.S. 279 (2002). “1072 , 42 U. S. C. § 1981a (1994 ed.). Baker is not a party to the case.”

Lawrence L. Pedigo v. P.A.M. Transp., Inc., Am. Trucking Associations, Inc., & Arkansas Motor Carriers Associations, Inc., Amici Curiae, 60 F.3d 1300 (8th Cir. 1995).

Alvarado v. Cajun Operating Co., 588 F.3d 1261 (9th Cir. 2009).

Lane v. Pena, 518 U.S. 187 (1996).

Tayler Bayer v. Neiman Marcus Grp., Inc., 861 F.3d 853 (9th Cir. 2017).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(a)(2)(2000) — 1 case

Harris v. Schriro, 652 F. Supp. 2d 1024 (D. Ariz. 2009).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(a)(2)(3) — 1 case

Nieves v. McDonough (D.P.R. 2025).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(a)(2)(b) — 1 case

Hernandez v. Texas Dep't of Human Servs., 91 F. App'x 934 (5th Cir. 2004).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(a)(3) — 35 cases

United States Equal Emp. Opportunity Comm'n v. St. Joseph's Hosp., Inc., 842 F.3d 1333 (11th Cir. 2016).

Jane M. Foster v. Time Warner Ent. Co., L.P., 250 F.3d 1189 (8th Cir. 2001).

Jaclyn Jurach v. Saf. Vision, L.L.C., 642 F. App'x 313 (5th Cir. 2016).

Stirlen v. Supercuts, Inc., 97 Cal. Daily Op. Serv. 270 (Cal. Ct. App. 1997).

Equal Emp. Opportunity Comm'n, Ahmet Yigit Demirelli, Intervenor-Appellee v. Convergys Customer Mgmt. Grp., Inc., 491 F.3d 790 (8th Cir. 2007).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(a)(Z) — 1 case

Serrano v. Cintas Corp., 711 F. Supp. 2d 782 (E.D. Mich. 2010).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(a)(i) — 2 cases

Maldonado v. City of Altus, OK., 433 F.3d 1294 (10th Cir. 2006).

Equal Emp. Opportunity Comm'n v. CRST Van Expedited, Inc., 611 F. Supp. 2d 918 (N.D. Iowa 2009).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(a)(l) — 189 cases

Oden v. Oktibbeha Cnty. MS, 246 F.3d 458 (5th Cir. 2001).

Pollard v. E. I. Du Pont De Nemours & Co., 532 U.S. 843 (2001).

Carleen Black v. Pan Am. Labs., 646 F.3d 254 (5th Cir. 2011). “3 See 42 U.S.C. § 1981a)(b)(3); TEX. LAB. CODE § 21.”

Equal Emp. Opportunity Comm'n v. Waffle House, Inc., 534 U.S. 279 (2002). “1072 , 42 U. S. C. § 1981a (1994 ed.). Baker is not a party to the case.”

Tayler Bayer v. Neiman Marcus Grp., Inc., 861 F.3d 853 (9th Cir. 2017).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(b) — 112 cases

Carleen Black v. Pan Am. Labs., 646 F.3d 254 (5th Cir. 2011). “3 See 42 U.S.C. § 1981a)(b)(3); TEX. LAB. CODE § 21.”

Sheila White, Plaintiff-Appellee/cross-Appellant v. Burlington N. & Santa Fe Ry. Co., Defendant-Appellant/cross-Appellee, 364 F.3d 789 (6th Cir. 2004). “42 U.S.C. §§ 1981a(b); 2000e-5(g), (k). Although Burlington Northern argues that it made White whole when it granted her back pay, Congress has declared that part of making a Title VII plaintiff whole is compensating her for interest on the back pay, attorney’s fees, and…”

Laura Phelan v. Cook Cnty., 463 F.3d 773 (7th Cir. 2006).

U.S. Equal Emp. Opportunity Comm'n v. ALC Sec. Investigations, Ltd., 823 F. Supp. 571 (N.D. Ill. 1993).

Oden v. Oktibbeha Cnty. MS, 246 F.3d 458 (5th Cir. 2001).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(b)(1) — 418 cases

Kolstad v. Am. Dental Assn., 527 U.S. 526 (1999). “Courts of Appeals, too, have relied on these liability limits in interpreting 42 U. S. C. § 1981a. See, e. g., Dudley v.”

Equal Emp. Opportunity Comm'n v. Boh Bros. Constr. Co., 731 F.3d 444 (5th Cir. 2013). “” 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(b)(1). This is a higher standard than the showing necessary for compensatory damages, satisfied in “only a subset of cases involving intentional discrimination.”

Dukes v. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., 603 F.3d 571 (9th Cir. 2010).

Thomas v. Wash. Metro. Area Transit Auth., 305 F. Supp. 3d 77 (D.C. Cir. 2018).

Lewis v. Am. Sugar Ref., Inc., 325 F. Supp. 3d 321 (S.D. Ill. 2018).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(b)(1)(2) — 1 case

Miller v. Hygrade Food Prods. Corp., 198 F.R.D. 638 (E.D. Pa. 2001).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(b)(2) — 94 cases

Lawrence L. Pedigo v. P.A.M. Transp., Inc., Am. Trucking Associations, Inc., & Arkansas Motor Carriers Associations, Inc., Amici Curiae, 60 F.3d 1300 (8th Cir. 1995).

Julie K. Hertzberg v. Sram Corp., 261 F.3d 651 (7th Cir. 2001).

Antonio Passaro, Jr. v. Commonwealth of Virginia, 935 F.3d 243 (4th Cir. 2019).

Lillian Pebbles Morrison v. Circuit City Stores, Inc., Mark F. Shankle, Sr. v. Pep Boys — Manny, Moe & Jack, Inc., 317 F.3d 646 (6th Cir. 2003).

Lewis v. Am. Sugar Ref., Inc., 325 F. Supp. 3d 321 (S.D. Ill. 2018).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(b)(3) — 445 cases

Salveson v. Douglas Cnty., 2001 WI 100 (Wis. 2001). “Salveson brought a lawsuit against Douglas County and Collyard on June 17, 1996, alleging violations and seeking damages under Title VII as amended by the Civil Rights Act of 1991, 42 U.S.C. § 1981a. She also raised numerous other claims.”

Parrish v. Sollecito, 280 F. Supp. 2d 145 (S.D.N.Y. 2003).

Channon v. United Parcel Serv., Inc., 629 N.W.2d 835 (Iowa 2001). “Linda Rae Channon appeals from a district court’s posttrial ruling that imposed caps pursuant to 42 U.S.C. § 1981a on compensatory and punitive damages a jury awarded her against her employer United Parcel Service, Inc.”

Mathiason v. Aquinas Home Health Care, Inc., 187 F. Supp. 3d 1269 (D. Kan. 2016).

Fantini v. Salem State Coll., 557 F.3d 22 (1st Cir. 2009).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(b)(3)(A) — 92 cases

Stanley D. Dowd & Richard Brown, Jr. v. United Steelworkers of Am., Local No. 286, 253 F.3d 1093 (8th Cir. 2001). “§ 1981a(b) provides in relevant part; (3) Limitations The sum of the amount of compensatory damages awarded under this section for future pecuniary losses, emotional pain, suffering, inconvenience, mental anguish, loss of enjoyment of life, and other nonpecuniary losses, and the…”

Sheriff v. Midwest Health Partners, P.C., 619 F.3d 923 (8th Cir. 2010).

Joseph v. HDMJ Restaurant, Inc., 970 F. Supp. 2d 131 (E.D.N.Y 2013).

Fantini v. Salem State Coll., 557 F.3d 22 (1st Cir. 2009).

Jennifer Farfaras v. Citizens Bank & Trust of Chicago, a Corp., Robert Michael, George Michael, & Nicholas Tanglis, 433 F.3d 558 (7th Cir. 2006).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(b)(3)(B) — 19 cases

Goldsmith v. Bagby Elevator Co., Inc., 513 F.3d 1261 (11th Cir. 2008).

Sandra Spragis Flowers v. S. Reg'l Physician Servs. Inc., 247 F.3d 229 (5th Cir. 2001).

Steven Weissman, Plaintiff-Appellee-Cross-Appellant v. Dawn Joy Fashions,inc., Defendant-Appellant-Cross-Appellee, 214 F.3d 224 (2d Cir. 2000).

David Pals v. Schepel Buick & Gmc Truck, Inc., 220 F.3d 495 (7th Cir. 2000).

Alberte v. Anew Health Care Servs., Inc., 2000 WI 7 (Wis. 2000).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(b)(3)(C) — 26 cases

Carleen Black v. Pan Am. Labs., 646 F.3d 254 (5th Cir. 2011). “3 See 42 U.S.C. § 1981a)(b)(3); TEX. LAB. CODE § 21.”

Danny T. Greenway v. The Buffalo Hilton Hotel, Cross-Appellee, 143 F.3d 47 (2d Cir. 1998).

Medlock v. Ortho Biotech, Inc., 164 F.3d 545 (10th Cir. 1999).

Graves ex rel. Est. of Graves v. Sec'y of the Dept. of Health & Human Servs., 109 Fed. Cl. 579 (Fed. Cl. 2013).

Hamlin v. Hampton Lumber Mills, Inc., 246 P.3d 1121 (Or. 2011).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(b)(3)(D) — 190 cases

Equal Emp. Opportunity Comm'n, Plaintiff-Appellee/ Joseph Carlton, Intervening v. Harbert-Yeargin, Inc., Defendant-Appellant/cross-Appellee, 266 F.3d 498 (6th Cir. 2001).

Johnson v. Spencer Press of Maine, Inc., 364 F.3d 368 (1st Cir. 2004).

Theresa Waldo v. Consumers Energy Co., 726 F.3d 802 (6th Cir. 2013).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(b)(3)(D)(2000) — 1 case

Bennett v. Fairfax Cnty., Va., 432 F. Supp. 2d 596 (E.D. Va. 2006).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(b)(3)(a) — 2 cases

Funk v. F & K Supply, Inc., 43 F. Supp. 2d 205 (N.D.N.Y. 1999).

Farfaras, Jennifer v. Citizens Bank Trust (7th Cir. 2006).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(b)(3)(c) — 2 cases

Rodriguez-Torres v. Caribbean Forms Mfr., Inc., 399 F.3d 52 (1st Cir. 2005).

Barbara R. Jonasson, Jeanne Norgren, Patricia Twohill v. Lutheran Child & Fam. Servs., Doing Bus. as Lutherbrook Child.'s Ctr. Sch., 115 F.3d 436 (7th Cir. 1997).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(b)(4) — 20 cases

Jin Ku Kim, Appellant/cross-Appellee v. Nash Finch Co., Appellee/cross-Appellant, 123 F.3d 1046 (8th Cir. 1997). “3d 1431, 1437 (1997) (holding standard of proof for punitive damages under 42 U.S.C. § 1981a is the same as that previously established for punitive damages under 42 U.”

O'Neal v. Ferguson Constr. Co., 237 F.3d 1248 (10th Cir. 2001).

Carole Tomka v. The Seiler Corp., Daniel Lucey, David Polonsky & Timothy Conroy, 66 F.3d 1295 (2d Cir. 1995).

Darrel Smith v. Denise Bray, 681 F.3d 888 (7th Cir. 2012).

Hill v. Airborne Freight Corp., 212 F. Supp. 2d 59 (E.D.N.Y 2002).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(b)(8)(A) — 1 case

Caudle v. Bristow Optical Co., 224 F.3d 1014 (9th Cir. 2000).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(b)(8)(D) — 1 case

Peyton, Monica M. v. DiMario, Michael F., 287 F.3d 1121 (D.C. Cir. 2002).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(b)(S) — 1 case

Clark v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, 885 F. Supp. 694 (E.D. Pa. 1995).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(b)(l) — 377 cases

U.S. Equal Emp. Opportunity Comm'n v. Consol Energy, Inc., 860 F.3d 131 (4th Cir. 2017).

Deters v. Equifax Credit Info. Servs., Inc., 202 F.3d 1262 (10th Cir. 2000).

Donna Patterson Nicholas Brown, & Michael L. Adams v. P.H.P. Healthcare Corp. Mark Kennedy, 90 F.3d 927 (5th Cir. 1996).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(b)(l)(1994) — 1 case

Santiago v. City of Vineland, 107 F. Supp. 2d 512 (D.N.J. 2000).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(b)(l)(2) — 1 case

Colindres v. QuietFlex Mfg., 235 F.R.D. 347 (S.D. Tex. 2006).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(b)(l)(3) — 1 case

Cush-Crawford v. Adchem Corp., 94 F. Supp. 2d 294 (E.D.N.Y 2000).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(b)(l)(3)(b) — 1 case

Cush-Crawford v. Adchem Corp., 94 F. Supp. 2d 294 (E.D.N.Y 2000).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(b)(l)(D) — 2 cases

Equal Emp. Opportunity Comm'n v. Fed. Express Corp., 537 F. Supp. 2d 700 (M.D. Penn. 2005).

Hemmings v. Tidyman's, Inc., 65 F. Supp. 2d 1157 (E.D. Wash. 1999).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(c) — 80 cases

St. Mary's Honor Ctr. v. Hicks, 509 U.S. 502 (1993).

Landgraf v. USI Film Prods., 511 U.S. 244 (1994).

Michael Nall v. BNSF Ry. Co., 917 F.3d 335 (5th Cir. 2019).

Andrea Gogel v. KIA Motors Mfg. of Georgia, Inc., 967 F.3d 1121 (11th Cir. 2020).

Stan Laber v. Francis J. Harvey, Sec'y of the Army, 438 F.3d 404 (4th Cir. 2006).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(c)(1) — 20 cases

Alvin Joel TYLER, Plaintiff-Appellee Cross-Appellant, v. BETHLEHEM STEEL Corp., Defendant-Appellant Cross-Appellee, 958 F.2d 1176 (2d Cir. 1992).

Claudette Lutz v. Glendale Union High Sch., Dist. No. 205 Governing Bd. of Glendale Union High Sch., Dist. No. 205, 403 F.3d 1061 (9th Cir. 2005).

Rembert v. Ryan’s Fam. Steak Houses, Inc, 596 N.W.2d 208 (Mich. Ct. App. 1999).

Edwards v. Brookhaven Sci. Assocs., LLC, 390 F. Supp. 2d 225 (E.D.N.Y 2005).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(c)(2) — 24 cases

Tamra Robinson v. First State Cmty. Action A, 920 F.3d 182 (3rd Cir. 2019).

Sony BMG Music Ent. v. Tenenbaum, 660 F.3d 487 (1st Cir. 2011).

Evans v. Avery, 100 F.3d 1033 (1st Cir. 1996).

Martini v. Fed. Nat'l Mortg. Ass'n, 178 F.3d 1336 (D.C. Cir. 1999).

Baker v. John Morrell & Co., 266 F. Supp. 2d 909 (N.D. Iowa 2003).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(c)(l) — 28 cases

Marra v. Philadelphia Hous. Auth., 497 F.3d 286 (3rd Cir. 2007).

Colleen P. Kramer v. Banc of Am. Sec., LLC, 355 F.3d 961 (7th Cir. 2004).

Red Mendoza v. Borden, Inc., D.B.A. Borden's Dairy, 195 F.3d 1238 (11th Cir. 1999).

Smith v. F.W. Morse Co., Inc., 76 F.3d 413 (1st Cir. 1996).

Stonehill Coll. v. Massachusetts Comm'n Against Discrimination, 808 N.E.2d 205 (Mass. 2004).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(d)(1) — 2 cases

Equal Emp. Opportunity Comm'n v. Bass Pro Outdoor World, L.L.C., 826 F.3d 791 (5th Cir. 2016).

Equal Emp. Opportunity Comm'n v. Bass Pro Outdoor World, L.L.C., 865 F.3d 216 (5th Cir. 2017).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(d)(1)(A) — 1 case

U.S. Eeoc v. W & O, Inc., 213 F.3d 600 (11th Cir. 2000).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(d)(1)(B) — 1 case

Ostrach v. Regents of the Univ. of California, 957 F. Supp. 196 (E.D. Cal. 1997).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(d)(2) — 2 cases

Jin Ku Kim v. Nash Finch Co. (8th Cir. 1997).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(d)(l) — 1 case

Equal Emp. Opportunity Comm'n v. Bass Pro Outdoor World, L.L.C., 826 F.3d 791 (5th Cir. 2016).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(d)(l)(A) — 4 cases

Michael GIBSON, Plaintiff-Appellant, v. Jesse BROWN, Sec'y, Dep't of Vets. Affairs, Defendant-Appellee, 137 F.3d 992 (7th Cir. 1998).

United States Equal Emp. Opportunity Comm'n v. W&O, Inc., 213 F.3d 600 (11th Cir. 2000).

Varner v. Illinois State Univ., 972 F. Supp. 458 (C.D. Ill. 1997).

Equal Emp. Opportunity Comm'n v. W & O, Inc., 36 F. Supp. 2d 1348 (S.D. Fla. 1998).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(d)(l)(B) — 1 case

Equal Emp. Opportunity Comm'n v. Grane Healthcare Co., 2 F. Supp. 3d 667 (W.D. Pa. 2014).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(e) — 7 cases

Vincent DeNOVELLIS, Plaintiff, Appellant, v. Donna E. SHALALA, Sec'y of Health & Human Servs., Defendant, Appellee, 124 F.3d 298 (1st Cir. 1997).

Reid v. Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Co., 205 F.R.D. 655 (N.D. Ga. 2001).

Zachery v. Texaco Expl. & Prod., Inc., 185 F.R.D. 230 (W.D. Tex. 1999).

Gucker v. U.S. Steel Corp., 212 F. Supp. 3d 549 (W.D. Pa. 2016).

Robinson v. Metro-North Commuter R.R., 267 F.3d 147 (2d Cir. 2001).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(e)(1) — 6 cases

Tamosaitis v. URS Inc., 781 F.3d 468 (9th Cir. 2014).

Braverman v. Penobscot Shoe Co., 859 F. Supp. 596 (D. Me. 1994).

Khandelwal v. Compuadd Corp., 780 F. Supp. 1077 (E.D. Va. 1992).

Dailey v. Societe Generale, 889 F. Supp. 108 (S.D.N.Y. 1995).

Conn v. Am. Nat'l Red Cross, 168 F. Supp. 3d 90 (D.D.C. 2016).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(e)(l) — 2 cases

Barbour, Joyce A. v. Browner, Carol M., 181 F.3d 1342 (D.C. Cir. 1999).

Phillips v. CIGNA Investments, Inc., 27 F. Supp. 2d 345 (D. Conn. 1998).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(l) — 1 case

McGinnis v. Kentucky Fried Chicken of California, 51 F.3d 805 (9th Cir. 1994).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(l)(2) — 1 case

Shepherd v. United States Olympic Comm., 94 F. Supp. 2d 1136 (D. Colo. 2000).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(l)(Z) — 1 case

Simien v. Chem. Waste Mgmt., Inc., 30 F. Supp. 2d 939 (W.D. La. 1998).

— 42 U.S.C. § 1981a(l)(l) — 2 cases

Reyes-Ortiz v. McConnell Valdes, 714 F. Supp. 2d 234 (D.P.R. 2010).

William Reed Huckabay v. Edward Moore, Individually & in His Off. Capacity as Cnty. Comm'r, & Jefferson Cnty., Texas, 137 F.3d 871 (5th Cir. 1998).

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