section 1983 damages (Washington) · Go Syfert
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section 1983 damages in Washington

52 Washington opinions name it 2 courts 1981–2026 9 in the last five years

The cases below were cited by Washington courts in a sentence that names this issue. Sides come from how each citing opinion treated the case (Syfertize flag on that citation), so a case can appear on both: that is where the law is contested. A red or yellow chip is the case's own overall treatment.

Followed or applied (20)

CaseFollowedCited
Heck v. Humphreygreen
scotus · 1994 · cited in 3 Washington opinions naming this issue, 2018–2026
2 sentences

2026Heck v. Humphrey Twenty years later, the Court held in Heck that people incarcerated by a state cannot bring a federal constitutional damages suit under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 and must instead bring a habeas corpus petition if proving the section 1983 claim would necessarily prove that their confinement was unlawful. 512 U.S. at 486 .

2021In Heck v. Humphrey, 512 U.S. 477, 490 , 114 S. Ct. 2364 , 129 L. Ed. 2d 383 (1994), the United States Supreme Court held that a § 1983 cause of action “does not accrue until the conviction or sentence has been invalidated.” The Court explained, We think the hoary principle that civil tort actions are not appropriate vehicles for challenging the validity of outstanding criminal judgments applies to § 1983 damages actions that necessarily require the plaintiff to prove the unlawfulness of 6 his conviction or confinement, just as it has always applied to actions for malicious prosecution.

23
Mercer Island Citizens v. Tent City 4green
washctapp · 2010 · cited in 3 Washington opinions naming this issue, 2020–2025
2 sentences

2025Accordingly, “claims for damages based on a LUPA claim must be dismissed if the LUPA claim fails.” Mercer Island Citizens for Fair Process v. Tent City 4, 156 Wn. App. 393, 395-96, 405 , 232 P.3d 1163 (2010) (dismissing claims for damages under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 that depended on the validity of permit); see also Shaw v. City of Des Moines, 109 Wn. App. 896, 901 , 37 P.3d 1255 (2002) (“If the petitioner loses the LUPA appeal, the damages case is moot and the matter is over.”).

2025Accordingly, “claims for damages based on a LUPA claim must be dismissed if the LUPA claim fails.” Mercer Island Citizens for Fair Process v. Tent City 4, 156 Wn. App. 393, 395-96, 405 , 232 P.3d 1163 (2010) (dismissing claims for damages under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 that depended on the validity of permit); see also Shaw v. City of Des Moines, 109 Wn. App. 896, 901 , 37 P.3d 1255 (2002) (“If the petitioner loses the LUPA appeal, the damages case is moot and the matter is over.”).

23
Shaw v. City of Des Moinesgreen
washctapp · 2002 · cited in 2 Washington opinions naming this issue, 2020–2025
2 sentences

2025Accordingly, “claims for damages based on a LUPA claim must be dismissed if the LUPA claim fails.” Mercer Island Citizens for Fair Process v. Tent City 4, 156 Wn. App. 393, 395-96, 405 , 232 P.3d 1163 (2010) (dismissing claims for damages under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 that depended on the validity of permit); see also Shaw v. City of Des Moines, 109 Wn. App. 896, 901 , 37 P.3d 1255 (2002) (“If the petitioner loses the LUPA appeal, the damages case is moot and the matter is over.”).

2025Accordingly, “claims for damages based on a LUPA claim must be dismissed if the LUPA claim fails.” Mercer Island Citizens for Fair Process v. Tent City 4, 156 Wn. App. 393, 395-96, 405 , 232 P.3d 1163 (2010) (dismissing claims for damages under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 that depended on the validity of permit); see also Shaw v. City of Des Moines, 109 Wn. App. 896, 901 , 37 P.3d 1255 (2002) (“If the petitioner loses the LUPA appeal, the damages case is moot and the matter is over.”).

22
Patel v. City of San Bernardinogreen
ca9 · 2002 · cited in 2 Washington opinions naming this issue, 2016–2017
2 sentences

2017In such circumstances, the remedy might be thought to be 'inadequate."'); see also Patel, 310 F.3d at 1142 & n.4 (allowing plaintiffs to pursue their section 1983 claim for damages against state tax officials because "[a] tax -25- declared unconstitutional cannot continue to be collected").

2017In Patel, the Ninth Circuit allowed taxpayers to pursue a section 1983 claim for damages when the city continued to collect a tax after the state court had declared it unconstitutional. 310 F.3d at 1139-40, 1142 .

22
Board of the County Commissioners of Bryan County v. Browngreen
scotus · 1997 · cited in 2 Washington opinions naming this issue, 2000–2000
2 sentences

2000See Bd. of County Comm’rs v. Brown, 520 U.S. 397, 403 , 117 S. Ct. 1382 , 137 L.

2000See Bd. of County Comm’rs v. Brown, 520 U.S. 397, 403 , 117 S. Ct. 1382 , 137 L.

22
Davis v. Mason Countygreen
ca9 · 1991 · cited in 2 Washington opinions naming this issue, 1997–1997
2 sentences

1997A "jury may award punitive damages under section 1983 either when a defendant's conduct was driven by evil motive or intent, or when it involved a reckless or callous indifference to the constitutional rights of others." Davis v. Mason County, 927 F.2d 1473, 1485 (9th Cir.1991) (citing Smith v. Wade, 461 U.S. 30, 56 , 103 S.Ct. 1625, 1640 , 75 L.Ed.2d 632 (1983)).

1997A "jury may award punitive damages under section 1983 either when a defendant’s conduct was driven by evil motive or intent, or when it involved a reckless or callous indifference to the constitutional rights of others.” Davis v. Mason County, 927 F.2d 1473, 1485 (9th Cir. 1991) (citing Smith v. Wade, 461 U.S. 30, 56 , 103 S. Ct. 1625 , 75 L.

22
Lutheran Day Care v. Snohomish Countygreen
wash · 1992 · cited in 3 Washington opinions naming this issue, 1996–2013
2 sentences

1997The court noted that "an arbitrary and capricious denial of a building or conditional use permit automatically entitles one to section 1983 damages.” Id. at 481 (emphasis added); see also Lutheran Day Care v. Snohomish County, 119 Wn.2d 91, 97 , 829 P.2d 746 (1992) (denial of permit was arbitrary and capricious).

1997The court noted that "an arbitrary and capricious denial of a building or conditional use permit automatically entitles one to section 1983 damages.” Id. at 481 (emphasis added); see also Lutheran Day Care v. Snohomish County, 119 Wn.2d 91, 97 , 829 P.2d 746 (1992) (denial of permit was arbitrary and capricious).

13
Burns v. Reedgreen
scotus · 1991 · cited in 1 Washington opinions naming this issue, 2020–2020
2 sentences

2020Absolute immunity from civil damages under § 1983 is not an expansive doctrine; it is “[of a] rare and exceptional character.” Cleavinger, 474 U.S. at 202 ; see also Burns v. Reed, 500 U.S. 478, 495 , 111 S. Ct. 1934 , 114 L.

2020Absolute immunity from civil damages under § 1983 is not an expansive doctrine; it is “[of a] rare and exceptional character.” Cleavinger, 474 U.S. at 202 ; see also Burns v. Reed, 500 U.S. 478, 495 , 111 S. Ct. 1934 , 114 L.

11
Kowenhoven v. County of Alleghenygreen
pa · 2006 · cited in 1 Washington opinions naming this issue, 2016–2016
11
Bridle Trails Community Club v. City of Bellevuegreen
washctapp · 1986 · cited in 1 Washington opinions naming this issue, 1998–1998
11
Norquest/RCA-W Bitter Lake Partnership v. City of Seattlegreen
washctapp · 1994 · cited in 1 Washington opinions naming this issue, 1997–1997
11
Felder v. Caseygreen
scotus · 1988 · cited in 1 Washington opinions naming this issue, 1993–1993
11
Ybarra v. Reno Thunderbird Mobile Home Villagegreen
ca9 · 1984 · cited in 1 Washington opinions naming this issue, 1992–1992
11
McKenzie v. Lambgreen
ca9 · 1984 · cited in 1 Washington opinions naming this issue, 1992–1992
11
David Glen Meyers v. Contra Costa County Department of Social Services, Defendantsgreen
ca9 · 1987 · cited in 1 Washington opinions naming this issue, 1991–1991
11
Mazor v. Sheltongreen
cand · 1986 · cited in 1 Washington opinions naming this issue, 1991–1991
11
Kurzawa v. Muellergreen
ca6 · 1984 · cited in 1 Washington opinions naming this issue, 1991–1991
11
Hennessey v. Washington, Department of Social & Health Servicesgreen
waed · 1985 · cited in 1 Washington opinions naming this issue, 1991–1991
11
Holmes v. Silver Cross Hospital of Joliet, Illinoisgreen
ilnd · 1972 · cited in 1 Washington opinions naming this issue, 1985–1985
11
Hearn v. Rhaygreen
waed · 1975 · cited in 1 Washington opinions naming this issue, 1981–1981
11

Distinguished, questioned or overruled (0)

CaseNegativeCited
No negative-treatment citations attached to this issue in Washington. Read the followed side critically anyway.

Also cited on this issue (45)

CaseCitedYears
Benjamin v. Washington State Bar Ass'n green
wash · 1999
2 sentences

2007“The doctrine of qualified immunity limits the exposure of public officials to liability for damages under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 .” Benjamin v. Wash. State Bar Ass’n, 138 Wn.2d 506, 527 , 980 P.2d 742 (1999).

2007“The doctrine of qualified immunity limits the exposure of public officials to liability for damages under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 .” Benjamin v. Wash. State Bar Ass’n, 138 Wn.2d 506, 527 , 980 P.2d 742 (1999).

42007–2024
Sintra, Inc. v. City of Seattle red
wash · 1992
2 sentences

1993There, a class of landowners sought civil rights damages under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 against the City of Seattle for the City's enforcement of the same HPO at issue in Sintra, Inc. v. Seattle, 119 Wn.2d 1 , 829 P.2d 765 , cert. denied sub nom.

1993There, a class of landowners sought civil rights damages under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 against the City of Seattle for the City's enforcement of the same HPO at issue in Sintra, Inc. v. Seattle, 119 Wn.2d 1 , 829 P.2d 765 , cert. denied sub nom.

41993–2016
Trueblood ex rel. Badayos v. Washington State Department of Social & Health Services green
ca9 · 2016
2 sentences

2025The plaintiffs in Trueblood brought a civil rights class action under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 to compel DSHS8 to provide timely competency evaluation and restoration services to class members.9 Trueblood, 101 F. Supp. 3d 1010 at 1012-13 ; Trueblood, 822 F.3d at 1041 .

2017Wash. 2015) (Trueblood II), rev’d in part, 822 F.3d 1037 . 5 ¶27 More recently, another Washington federal district court ruled for purposes of an immunity defense in a 42 U.S.C. § 1983 damages action that it was “clearly established” that “indefinitely incarcerating incompetent defendants while they awaited competency restoration, because there was not room in the state hospital, violated their constitutional due process rights.” Willis v. Wash. State *897 Dep’t of Soc. & Health Servs., No. C16-5113 RBL, 2017 WL 1064390 , at *6, 2017 U.S. Dist.

22017–2025
Robinson v. City of Seattle red
wash · 1992
2 sentences

2021Robinson v. City of Seattle, 119 Wn.2d 34, 86 , 830 P.2d 318 (1992).

2021Robinson v. City of Seattle, 119 Wn.2d 34, 86 , 830 P.2d 318 (1992).

21993–2021
Wash. Trucking Ass'ns v. Emp't Sec. Dep't green
wash · 2017
2 sentences

2019In *224 Washington Trucking Associations v. Employment Security Department , 188 Wash.2d 198 , 393 P.3d 761 (2017), the Washington State Supreme Court relied in part on National Private Truck merely to confirm that state courts are barred from awarding damages under § 1983 in state tax cases when there is an adequate state law remedy.

2019In *224 Washington Trucking Associations v. Employment Security Department , 188 Wash.2d 198 , 393 P.3d 761 (2017), the Washington State Supreme Court relied in part on National Private Truck merely to confirm that state courts are barred from awarding damages under § 1983 in state tax cases when there is an adequate state law remedy.

22019–2019
Sintra, Inc. v. City of Seattle red
wash · 1997
2 sentences

2017And the one case Olsen cites, Sintra, Inc. v. City of Seattle, concerned a 42 U.S.C. § 1983 claim for money damages against the City of Seattle and is not on point. 131 Wn.2d 640 , 645, 935 P.2d 555 (1997).

2017And the one case Olsen cites, Sintra, Inc. v. City of Seattle, concerned a 42 U.S.C. § 1983 claim for money damages against the City of Seattle and is not on point. 131 Wn.2d 640 , 645, 935 P.2d 555 (1997).

21997–2017
Fair Assessment in Real Estate Assn., Inc. v. McNary green
scotus · 1981
2 sentences

2017Id. at 116 .

2016The Court in Fair Assessment held that obtaining such a court declaration regarding a state tax violates the principle of comity. 454 U.S. at 113-15 . ¶57 WTA and the Carriers appear to argue that they do not have an adequate remedy regarding damages under § 1983 in the amount of the challenged assessments for two reasons.

22016–2017
Kelly v. COUNTY OF CHELAN green
washctapp · 2010
2 sentences

2013Cf Kelly v. Chelan County, 157 Wn.

2013Cf Kelly v. Chelan County, 157 Wn.

22013–2013
Cox v. City of Lynnwood green
washctapp · 1993
2 sentences

2013App, 1, 863 P.2d 578 (1993) (applicant meeting code requirements for boundary line adjustment entitled to § 1983 damages for city's arbitrary and capricious denial).

2013App. 1 , 863 P.2d 578 (1993) (applicant meeting code requirements for boundary line adjustment entitled to § 1983 damages for city’s arbitrary and capricious denial).

22013–2013
Owen v. City of Independence green
scotus · 1980
2 sentences

2013Section 1983 provides the primary means for private enforcement of civil rights in the United States; Congress enacted this statute “to provide protection to those persons wronged by the ‘misuse of power.’”34 Specifically, it provides, 33 Lutheran Day Care v. Snohomish County, 119 Wn.2d 91, 127 , 829 P.2d 746 (1992). 34 Owen v. City of Independence, 445 U.S. 622, 650 , 100 S. Ct. 1398 , 63 L.

2013Section 1983 provides the primary means for private enforcement of civil rights in the United States; Congress enacted this statute “to provide protection to those persons wronged by the ‘misuse of power.’”34 Specifically, it provides, 33 Lutheran Day Care v. Snohomish County, 119 Wn.2d 91, 127 , 829 P.2d 746 (1992). 34 Owen v. City of Independence, 445 U.S. 622, 650 , 100 S. Ct. 1398 , 63 L.

21992–2013
Furfaro v. City of Seattle green
washctapp · 1999
2 sentences

2001Furfaro, 97 Wash.App. at 540 , 984 P.2d 1055 .

2001Furfaro, 97 Wn.

22001–2001
Wilson v. Garcia red
scotus · 1985
2 sentences

2000Qualified Immunity against § 1983 Civil Rights Action Staats alleged causes of action under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 predicated on claims of false arrest, excessive force, and il legal search. 5 42 U.S.C. § 1983 “provides ‘a uniquely federal remedy against incursions under the claimed authority of state law upon rights secured by the Constitution and laws of the Nation.’ The high purposes of this unique remedy make it appropriate to accord the statute ‘a sweep as broad as its language.’ ” Wilson v. Garcia, 471 U.S. 261, 271-72 , 105 S. Ct. 1938 , 85 L.

2000Qualified Immunity against § 1983 Civil Rights Action Staats alleged causes of action under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 predicated on claims of false arrest, excessive force, and il legal search. 5 42 U.S.C. § 1983 “provides ‘a uniquely federal remedy against incursions under the claimed authority of state law upon rights secured by the Constitution and laws of the Nation.’ The high purposes of this unique remedy make it appropriate to accord the statute ‘a sweep as broad as its language.’ ” Wilson v. Garcia, 471 U.S. 261, 271-72 , 105 S. Ct. 1938 , 85 L.

22000–2000
Smith v. Wade green
scotus · 1983
2 sentences

1997A "jury may award punitive damages under section 1983 either when a defendant’s conduct was driven by evil motive or intent, or when it involved a reckless or callous indifference to the constitutional rights of others.” Davis v. Mason County, 927 F.2d 1473, 1485 (9th Cir. 1991) (citing Smith v. Wade, 461 U.S. 30, 56 , 103 S. Ct. 1625 , 75 L.

1997A "jury may award punitive damages under section 1983 either when a defendant’s conduct was driven by evil motive or intent, or when it involved a reckless or callous indifference to the constitutional rights of others.” Davis v. Mason County, 927 F.2d 1473, 1485 (9th Cir. 1991) (citing Smith v. Wade, 461 U.S. 30, 56 , 103 S. Ct. 1625 , 75 L.

21997–1997
Sheerr v. Evesham Tp. green
njsuperctappdiv · 1982
2 sentences

1997In Sheerr v. Township of Evesham, 184 N.J.Super. 11 , 445 A.2d 46 (1982), the New Jersey Supreme Court discussed the availability of damages under § 1983 for deprivation of substantive due process as a result of excessive regulation.

1997Super. 11, 445 A.2d 46 (Law Div. 1982), the New Jersey Supreme Court discussed the availability of damages under § 1983 for deprivation of substantive due process as a result of excessive regulation.

21997–1997
City of Newport v. Fact Concerts, Inc. green
scotus · 1981
2 sentences

1997Ed. 2d 1 (1991), in the jury instruction, and erred by excluding evidence it offered to support an award of punitive damages. 14 Because municipalities are immune from punitive damages under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 , City of Newport v. Fact Concerts, Inc., 453 U.S. 247 , 101 S. Ct. 2748 , 69 L.

1997Ed. 2d 1 (1991), in the jury instruction, and erred by excluding evidence it offered to support an award of punitive damages. 14 Because municipalities are immune from punitive damages under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 , City of Newport v. Fact Concerts, Inc., 453 U.S. 247 , 101 S. Ct. 2748 , 69 L.

21997–1997
Monell v. New York City Dept. of Social Servs. green
scotus · 1978
2 sentences

1989Municipalities are "persons" subject to damages under § 1983, but "a municipality cannot be held liable solely because it employs a tortfeasor — or, in other words, a municipality cannot be held liable under § 1983 on a respondeat superior theory." Monell v. Department of Social Servs., 436 U.S. 658, 691 , 56 L.

1989Municipalities are "persons" subject to damages under § 1983, but "a municipality cannot be held liable solely because it employs a tortfeasor — or, in other words, a municipality cannot be held liable under § 1983 on a respondeat superior theory." Monell v. Department of Social Servs., 436 U.S. 658, 691 , 56 L.

21985–1989
Preiser v. Rodriguez green
scotus · 1973
1 sentence

2026Instead, he analogized a section 1983 damages claim to a tort claim for malicious prosecution, noting that the latter claim required a plaintiff to prove that the 26 underlying conviction had already been invalidated to “‘avoid[] parallel litigation over the issues of probable cause and guilt.’” Id. at 484 (quoting 8 STUART M.

12026–2026
Trueblood v. Washington State Department of Social & Health Services green
wawd · 2015
1 sentence

2025The plaintiffs in Trueblood brought a civil rights class action under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 to compel DSHS8 to provide timely competency evaluation and restoration services to class members.9 Trueblood, 101 F. Supp. 3d 1010 at 1012-13 ; Trueblood, 822 F.3d at 1041 .

12025–2025
West v. Stahley green
washctapp · 2010
1 sentence

2025“Exhausting administrative remedies is always a condition precedent to challenging a ‘land use decision’ that is subject to review under LUPA.” West v. Stahley, 155 Wn. App. 691, 697 , 229 P.3d 943 (2010); RCW 36.70C.060(2)(d) (emphasis added).

12025–2025
West v. Stahley green
washctapp · 2010
1 sentence

2025“Exhausting administrative remedies is always a condition precedent to challenging a ‘land use decision’ that is subject to review under LUPA.” West v. Stahley, 155 Wn. App. 691, 697 , 229 P.3d 943 (2010); RCW 36.70C.060(2)(d) (emphasis added).

12025–2025
Pearson v. Callahan green
scotus · 2009
2 sentences

2024Qualified immunity balances protecting public officials from “harassment, distraction, and liability when they perform their duties reasonably” with “the need to hold public officials accountable when they exercise power irresponsibly.” Pearson v. Callahan, 555 U.S. 223, 231 , 129 S. Ct. 808 , 172 L. Ed. 2d 565 (2009).

2024Qualified immunity balances protecting public officials from “harassment, distraction, and liability when they perform their duties reasonably” with “the need to hold public officials accountable when they exercise power irresponsibly.” Pearson v. Callahan, 555 U.S. 223, 231 , 129 S. Ct. 808 , 172 L. Ed. 2d 565 (2009).

12024–2024
Harlow v. Fitzgerald green
scotus · 1982
2 sentences

2024But the judicially created doctrine of qualified immunity protects government officials from liability for civil damages under § 1983 if “their conduct does not violate clearly established statutory or constitutional rights of which a reasonable person would have known.” Harlow v. Fitzgerald, 457 U.S. 800, 818 , 102 S. Ct. 2727 , 73 L. Ed. 2d 396 (1982).

2024But the judicially created doctrine of qualified immunity protects government officials from liability for civil damages under § 1983 if “their conduct does not violate clearly established statutory or constitutional rights of which a reasonable person would have known.” Harlow v. Fitzgerald, 457 U.S. 800, 818 , 102 S. Ct. 2727 , 73 L. Ed. 2d 396 (1982).

12024–2024
Durland v. San Juan County green
wash · 2014
12020–2020
Cleavinger v. Saxner green
scotus · 1985
12020–2020
Maytown Sand And Gravel, Resp/cross-app v. Thurston County, App/cross-resp green
washctapp · 2017
12018–2018
United States v. Russell green
scotus · 1973
12017–2017
Kuehn v. Renton School District No. 403 green
wash · 1985
12004–2004
Gomez v. Toledo green
scotus · 1980
12000–2000
Hughes v. Rowe green
scotus · 1980
11999–1999
Christiansburg Garment Co. v. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission green
scotus · 1978
11999–1999
Pacific Mutual Life Insurance v. Haslip green
scotus · 1991
11997–1997
San Telmo Associates v. City of Seattle green
wash · 1987
11997–1997
Snohomish County v. Lutheran Day Care green
scotus · 1993
11996–1996
Erwin & Erwin v. Brewer green
scotus · 1992
11993–1993
Patricia Thorsted Stephanie Thorsted v. Tim Kelly green
ca9 · 1988
11992–1992
Linda K. Wood v. Steven C. Ostrander Neil Maloney green
ca9 · 1989
11992–1992
Kentucky v. Graham green
scotus · 1985
11992–1992
Burgess v. Towne green
washctapp · 1975
11992–1992
Pulliam v. Allen red
scotus · 1984
11992–1992
Owen v. City of Independence green
scotus · 1980
11992–1992

Statutes the citing opinions construe

USC § 42u.s.c.1983 (52) USC § 42u.s.c.1988 (13) WA § Wash. Rev. Code § 2.06.040 (8) WA § Wash. Rev. Code § 36.70C.020 (5) WA § Wash. Rev. Code § 36.70C.030 (5) WA § Wash. Rev. Code § 4.16.080 (5) WA § Wash. Rev. Code § 4.92.090 (5) WA § Wash. Rev. Code § 64.40.020 (5) WA § Wash. Rev. Code § 64.40.010 (4) WA § Wash. Rev. Code § 82.02.020 (4) WA § Wash. Rev. Code § 64.40.030 (3) WA § Wash. Rev. Code § 7.16.040 (3)

Counted by distinct opinions that both name this issue and are annotated to the section; sections every opinion cites regardless of issue are not filtered here, so read the counts against the total above.

Where else courts name it

NY 105 (1976–2026) TX 95 (1980–2025) CA 91 (1975–2024) MA 56 (1981–2026) PA 52 (1979–2026) WA 52 (1981–2026) NJ 51 (1976–2021) CO 50 (1979–2026) IL 46 (1978–2026) CT 45 (1988–2026) OH 37 (1983–2025) AL 37 (1981–2025) IN 35 (1980–2020) NC 32 (1981–2026) GA 30 (1981–2021) LA 29 (1980–2022) FL 28 (1981–2026) MD 27 (1985–2024) NM 27 (1981–2016) VT 24 (1983–2024) MI 24 (1985–2026) MN 23 (1981–2026) OR 23 (1979–2026) KS 23 (1981–2020) TN 22 (1979–2024) WV 22 (1977–2024) ME 19 (1983–2026) AZ 19 (1973–2025) WI 17 (1977–2026) IA 16 (1980–2019) ID 15 (1985–2019) DC 15 (1990–2024) WY 13 (1978–2023) MO 13 (1980–2017) AK 13 (1987–2025) MS 12 (1990–2018) NE 11 (1990–2022) MT 10 (1980–2025) HI 10 (1974–2025) RI 9 (1979–2020) AR 8 (1996–2026) NV 8 (1989–2020) UT 6 (1981–2009) OK 6 (1990–2009) NH 6 (1981–2009) VA 5 (1982–2020) KY 5 (1990–2025) ND 5 (1983–2024) SD 5 (1994–2021) DE 4 (2017–2025) SC 3 (2000–2004)

Opinions by the citing court's state. A doctrine retained in one state and abandoned in another shows up here as a year span that stalls.

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