promise immunity in Indiana

29 Indiana opinions name it 2 courts 1976–2019 0 in the last five years

The cases below were cited by Indiana courts in a sentence that names this issue. Sides come from how each citing opinion treated the case (Syfertize flag on that citation), so a case can appear on both: that is where the law is contested. A red or yellow chip is the case's own overall treatment.

Followed or applied (11)

Case	Followed	Cited
Ashby v. Stategreen ind · 1976 · cited in 21 Indiana opinions naming this issue, 1976–2018 2 sentences 2007The Ashby court held that “[i]t is a clear constitutional principle that a confession or admission of the accused is inadmissible if it was obtained by a promise of immunity or mitigation of punishment.” Id. at 195. 1989A statement offering medical assistance does not constitute a promise of immunity or mitigation of punishment proscribed by Ashby v. State (1976), 265 Ind. 316 , 354 N.E.2d 192 .	6	21
Fowler v. Stategreen ind · 1985 · cited in 3 Indiana opinions naming this issue, 1987–2012 2 sentences 2012The relevant inquiry is whether the challenged police conduct induced a confes don which was not freely self-determined.” Fowler v. State, 483 N.E.2d 739, 744 (Ind. 1985) (citation omitted). 4 .The first part of this passage is drawn from the transcript of the suppression hearing as State's Exhibit 1, a video recording of the interview, was published. 1987In Fowler v. State (1985), Ind., 483 N.E.2d 739, 744 , we stated: A confession is inadmissible when obtained by a promise of immunity or mitigation of punishment.	2	3
Long v. Stategreen ind · 1981 · cited in 3 Indiana opinions naming this issue, 1981–2007 2 sentences 1985Long v. State, (1981) Ind., 422 N.E.2d 284 ; Johnson v. State, (1978) 269 Ind. 370 , 380 N.E.2d 1236 . 148 It is true that a confession is inadmissible if obtained by a promise of immunity or mitigation of punishment. 1981*See, Long, supra; Love, supra; Turpin, supra; Harrison, supra; Ortiz, supra. A mere exhortation by the police that it would be better for the accused to tell the truth when unaccompanied by a promise of immunity or leniency does not render a subsequent confession involuntary.	1	3
Hutto v. Rossgreen scotus · 1976 · cited in 2 Indiana opinions naming this issue, 1981–2007 2 sentences 1981Since Ashby , the constitutional principle that a promise of immunity or mitigation of punishment renders a confession inadmissible has been reiterated by the United States Supreme Court in Hutto v. Ross (1976), 429 U.S. 28, 30 , 97 S.Ct. 202, 203 , 50 L.Ed.2d 194, 197 , and on numerous occasions, by Indiana courts. 1981Since Ashby , the constitutional principle that a promise of immunity or mitigation of punishment renders a confession inadmissible has been reiterated by the United States Supreme Court in Hutto v. Ross (1976), 429 U.S. 28, 30 , 97 S.Ct. 202, 203 , 50 L.Ed.2d 194, 197 , and on numerous occasions, by Indiana courts.	1	2
Smith v. Stategreen ind · 1986 · cited in 2 Indiana opinions naming this issue, 1988–1989 2 sentences 1989Smith v. State (1986), Ind., 500 N.E.2d 190, 193 . 1988Smith v. State (1986), Ind., 500 N.E.2d 190, 193 ("An officer's statement to the accused during the interrogation that he will get mental health assistance for the accused does not constitute a promise of immunity or mitigation of punishment....").	1	2
Fennell v. Stategreen ind · 1986 · cited in 2 Indiana opinions naming this issue, 1986–1988 2 sentences 1988Accord Fennell v. State (1986), Ind., 492 N.E.2d 297 . 1986Fennell v. State (1986), Ind., 492 N.E.2d 297 ; Basham v. State (1981), Ind., 422 N.E.2d 1206 .	1	2
Collins v. Stategreen ind · 1987 · cited in 1 Indiana opinions naming this issue, 2019–2019 1 sentence 2019Collins v. State, 509 N.E.2d 827, 830 (Ind. 1987).	1	1
Reid v. Stategreen ind · 1978 · cited in 1 Indiana opinions naming this issue, 2007–2007 2 sentences 2007McVey asserts that because he relied on the promise, which he understood to mean that “anything participated in [ ] could not be used against [him],” he was coerced into making the incriminating admission. 1 The courts of this state have repeatedly expressed severe reservations about the reliability of polygraph results. 441 See e.g., Willey v. State, 712 N.E.2d 434, 441 (Ind.1999); Madison v. State, 534 N.E.2d 702, 704 (Ind.1989) (“the value of polygraph examinations is highly questionable ... ”); Reid v. State, 267 Ind. 555 , 372 N.E.2d 1149, 1152 (1978) (“in any given ease, unreliable resu 2007McVey asserts that because he relied on the promise, which he understood to mean that “anything participated in [ ] could not be used against [him],” he was coerced into making the incriminating admission. 1 The courts of this state have repeatedly expressed severe reservations about the reliability of polygraph results. 441 See e.g., Willey v. State, 712 N.E.2d 434, 441 (Ind.1999); Madison v. State, 534 N.E.2d 702, 704 (Ind.1989) (“the value of polygraph examinations is highly questionable ... ”); Reid v. State, 267 Ind. 555 , 372 N.E.2d 1149, 1152 (1978) (“in any given ease, unreliable resu	1	1
Willey v. Stategreen ind · 1999 · cited in 1 Indiana opinions naming this issue, 2007–2007 1 sentence 2007McVey asserts that because he relied on the promise, which he understood to mean that “anything participated in [ ] could not be used against [him],” he was coerced into making the incriminating admission. 1 The courts of this state have repeatedly expressed severe reservations about the reliability of polygraph results. *441 See e.g., Willey v. State, 712 N.E.2d 434, 441 (Ind.1999); Madison v. State, 534 N.E.2d 702, 704 (Ind.1989) (“the value of polygraph examinations is highly questionable ... ”); Reid v. State, 267 Ind. 555 , 372 N.E.2d 1149, 1152 (1978) (“in any given ease, unreliable resu	1	1
Madison v. Stategreen ind · 1989 · cited in 1 Indiana opinions naming this issue, 2007–2007 1 sentence 2007McVey asserts that because he relied on the promise, which he understood to mean that “anything participated in [ ] could not be used against [him],” he was coerced into making the incriminating admission. 1 The courts of this state have repeatedly expressed severe reservations about the reliability of polygraph results. *441 See e.g., Willey v. State, 712 N.E.2d 434, 441 (Ind.1999); Madison v. State, 534 N.E.2d 702, 704 (Ind.1989) (“the value of polygraph examinations is highly questionable ... ”); Reid v. State, 267 Ind. 555 , 372 N.E.2d 1149, 1152 (1978) (“in any given ease, unreliable resu	1	1
Savides v. Savidesgreen mass · 1987 · cited in 1 Indiana opinions naming this issue, 1995–1995 1 sentence 1995Drew, 508 N.E.2d at 617.	1	1

Distinguished, questioned or overruled (0)

Case	Negative	Cited
No negative-treatment citations attached to this issue in Indiana. Read the followed side critically anyway.

Also cited on this issue (22)

Case	Cited	Years
Shotwell Manufacturing Co. v. United States green scotus · 1963 2 sentences 2007Relying on the test to resolve a claim resting on the, Self-Incriminating ■ Clause of the Fifth Amendment, our supreme court referred to Shotwell Manufacturing Co. v. United States, 371 U.S. 341 , 83 S.Ct. 448 , 9 L.Ed.2d 357 (1963) (quoting Bram v. United States, 168 U.S. 532 , 18 S.Ct. 183 , 42 L.Ed. 568 (1897)) stating, “[a] confession in order to be admissible must be free and voluntary: that is, ... not ... obtained by any direct or implied promises however slight.” Since Ashby , the constitutional principle that a promise of immunity or mitigation of punishment renders a confession inadm 2007Relying on the test to resolve a claim resting on the, Self-Incriminating ■ Clause of the Fifth Amendment, our supreme court referred to Shotwell Manufacturing Co. v. United States, 371 U.S. 341 , 83 S.Ct. 448 , 9 L.Ed.2d 357 (1963) (quoting Bram v. United States, 168 U.S. 532 , 18 S.Ct. 183 , 42 L.Ed. 568 (1897)) stating, “[a] confession in order to be admissible must be free and voluntary: that is, ... not ... obtained by any direct or implied promises however slight.” Since Ashby , the constitutional principle that a promise of immunity or mitigation of punishment renders a confession inadm	4	1976–2007
Bram v. United States green scotus · 1897 2 sentences 2007Relying on the test to resolve a claim resting on the, Self-Incriminating ■ Clause of the Fifth Amendment, our supreme court referred to Shotwell Manufacturing Co. v. United States, 371 U.S. 341 , 83 S.Ct. 448 , 9 L.Ed.2d 357 (1963) (quoting Bram v. United States, 168 U.S. 532 , 18 S.Ct. 183 , 42 L.Ed. 568 (1897)) stating, “[a] confession in order to be admissible must be free and voluntary: that is, ... not ... obtained by any direct or implied promises however slight.” Since Ashby , the constitutional principle that a promise of immunity or mitigation of punishment renders a confession inadm 2007Relying on the test to resolve a claim resting on the, Self-Incriminating ■ Clause of the Fifth Amendment, our supreme court referred to Shotwell Manufacturing Co. v. United States, 371 U.S. 341 , 83 S.Ct. 448 , 9 L.Ed.2d 357 (1963) (quoting Bram v. United States, 168 U.S. 532 , 18 S.Ct. 183 , 42 L.Ed. 568 (1897)) stating, “[a] confession in order to be admissible must be free and voluntary: that is, ... not ... obtained by any direct or implied promises however slight.” Since Ashby , the constitutional principle that a promise of immunity or mitigation of punishment renders a confession inadm	2	1988–2007
Turner v. State green ind · 1980 2 sentences 2007See, e.g., Hutto v. Ross, 429 U.S. 28 , 97 S.Ct. 202 , 50 L.Ed.2d 194 (1976); Long v. State, 422 N.E.2d 284 (Ind.1981); Turner v. State, 273 Ind. 627 , 407 N.E.2d 235 (1980). 2007See, e.g., Hutto v. Ross, 429 U.S. 28 , 97 S.Ct. 202 , 50 L.Ed.2d 194 (1976); Long v. State, 422 N.E.2d 284 (Ind.1981); Turner v. State, 273 Ind. 627 , 407 N.E.2d 235 (1980).	2	1981–2007
Miranda v. Arizona green scotus · 1966 2 sentences 1988Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 , 86 S.Ct. 1602 , 16 L.Ed.2d 694 (1966). confesconfes-sions were also inadmissible as they were obtained by a promise of immunity mitimiti-gation of punishment. 1988Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 , 86 S.Ct. 1602 , 16 L.Ed.2d 694 (1966). confesconfes-sions were also inadmissible as they were obtained by a promise of immunity mitimiti-gation of punishment.	2	1976–1988
Sorenson v. United States green ca8 · 1906 2 sentences 1981Shotwell Manufacturing Co. v. United States, (1963) 371 U.S. 341 , 1374 83 S.Ct. 448 , 9 L.Ed.2d 357 ; Smith v. United States, (1954) 348 U.S. 147 , 75 S.Ct. 194 , 99 L.Ed. 192 ; Sorenson v. United States, (8th Cir. 1906) 143 F. 820 . 1976*Shotwell Manufacturing Co. v. United States, (1963) 371 U.S. 341 , 83 S.Ct. 448 , 9 L.Ed. 357 ; Smith v. United States, (1954) 348 U.S. 147 , 75 S.Ct. 194 , 99 L.Ed. 192 ; Sorenson v. United States, (8th Cir. 1906) 143 F. 820 .	2	1976–1981
Smith v. United States green scotus · 1954 2 sentences 1981Shotwell Manufacturing Co. v. United States, (1963) 371 U.S. 341 , 1374 83 S.Ct. 448 , 9 L.Ed.2d 357 ; Smith v. United States, (1954) 348 U.S. 147 , 75 S.Ct. 194 , 99 L.Ed. 192 ; Sorenson v. United States, (8th Cir. 1906) 143 F. 820 . 1981Shotwell Manufacturing Co. v. United States, (1963) 371 U.S. 341 , 1374 83 S.Ct. 448 , 9 L.Ed.2d 357 ; Smith v. United States, (1954) 348 U.S. 147 , 75 S.Ct. 194 , 99 L.Ed. 192 ; Sorenson v. United States, (8th Cir. 1906) 143 F. 820 .	2	1976–1981
Rogers v. Richmond green scotus · 1961 2 sentences 1981“He continued, quoting from Rogers v. Richmond, (1961) 365 U.S. 534 , 81 S.Ct. 735 , 5 L.Ed.2d 760 : ‘A coerced confession claim, whether founded on a promise of immunity or otherwise, always involves this question: did the governmental conduct complained of “bring about” a confession “not freely self-determined”?’ 371 U.S. at 348 , 83 S.Ct. at 453 .” Ashby, supra, 265 Ind. at 320-21 , 354 N.E.2d at 195 . 1981“He continued, quoting from Rogers v. Richmond, (1961) 365 U.S. 534 , 81 S.Ct. 735 , 5 L.Ed.2d 760 : ‘A coerced confession claim, whether founded on a promise of immunity or otherwise, always involves this question: did the governmental conduct complained of “bring about” a confession “not freely self-determined”?’ 371 U.S. at 348 , 83 S.Ct. at 453 .” Ashby, supra, 265 Ind. at 320-21 , 354 N.E.2d at 195 .	2	1976–1981
St. John v. State green ind · 1988 1 sentence 1995John v. State (1988), Ind., 523 N.E.2d 1353 (failure to provide argument for independent standard waives state constitutional law issue)). [2] On February 22, 1991, the defendant testified at a probable cause hearing for the arrest of Warren and Robertson for the murder and robberies of January 16, 1991. [3] In this appeal, the defendant does not seek to enforce the alleged promise of immunity and leniency, but rather seeks to exclude the ensuing statements.	1	1995–1995
Townsend v. State green ind · 1989 2 sentences 1991Townsend v. State (1989), Ind., 533 N.E.2d 1215 , cert. denied, [___] U.S. [___], 110 S.Ct. 1327 , 108 L.Ed.2d 502 ." Generally, a confession is not admissible if procured by a promise of immunity or mitigation or punishment. 1991Townsend v. State (1989), Ind., 533 N.E.2d 1215 , cert. denied, [-] U.S. [-], 110 S.Ct. 1327 , 108 L.Ed.2d 502 ." Generally, a confession is not admissible if procured by a promise of immunity or mitigation or punishment.	1	1991–1991
Massey v. State green ind · 1985 2 sentences 1991Massey v. State (1985) Ind., 473 N.E.2d 146, 148 . 1991Massey v. State (1985) Ind., 473 N.E.2d 146, 148 .	1	1991–1991
Stewart v. Washington green scotus · 1990 2 sentences 1991Townsend v. State (1989), Ind., 533 N.E.2d 1215 , cert. denied, [___] U.S. [___], 110 S.Ct. 1327 , 108 L.Ed.2d 502 ." Generally, a confession is not admissible if procured by a promise of immunity or mitigation or punishment. 1991Townsend v. State (1989), Ind., 533 N.E.2d 1215 , cert. denied, [-] U.S. [-], 110 S.Ct. 1327 , 108 L.Ed.2d 502 ." Generally, a confession is not admissible if procured by a promise of immunity or mitigation or punishment.	1	1991–1991
Basham v. State green ind · 1981 1 sentence 1986Fennell v. State (1986), Ind., 492 N.E.2d 297 ; Basham v. State (1981), Ind., 422 N.E.2d 1206 .	1	1986–1986
Johnson v. State green ind · 1978 2 sentences 1985Long v. State, (1981) Ind., 422 N.E.2d 284 ; Johnson v. State, (1978) 269 Ind. 370 , 380 N.E.2d 1236 . 148 It is true that a confession is inadmissible if obtained by a promise of immunity or mitigation of punishment. 1985Long v. State, (1981) Ind., 422 N.E.2d 284 ; Johnson v. State, (1978) 269 Ind. 370 , 380 N.E.2d 1236 . 148 It is true that a confession is inadmissible if obtained by a promise of immunity or mitigation of punishment.	1	1985–1985
Ward v. State green indctapp · 1980 1 sentence 1981See, Long v. State (1981), Ind., 422 N.E.2d 284, 286 ; Turner v. State (1980), Ind., 407 N.E.2d 235, 238 ; Love v. State (1980), Ind., 400 N.E.2d 1371, 1373 ; Turpin v. State (1980), Ind., 400 N.E.2d 1119, 1121 ; Harrison v. State (1978), 269 Ind. 677, 683 , 382 N.E.2d 920, 924 , cert. denied (1979), 441 U.S. 912 , 99 S.Ct. 2010 , 60 L.Ed.2d 384 ; Ortiz v. State (1976), 265 Ind. 549, 555 , 356 N.E.2d 1188, 1192 ; Ward v. State (1980), Ind.App., 408 N.E.2d 140, 143 ; White v. State (1980), Ind.App., 404 N.E.2d 1144, 1146 ; Perry v. State (1978), Ind.App., 374 N.E.2d 558 .	1	1981–1981
Ortiz v. State green ind · 1976 2 sentences 1981See, Long v. State (1981), Ind., 422 N.E.2d 284, 286 ; Turner v. State (1980), Ind., 407 N.E.2d 235, 238 ; Love v. State (1980), Ind., 400 N.E.2d 1371, 1373 ; Turpin v. State (1980), Ind., 400 N.E.2d 1119, 1121 ; Harrison v. State (1978), 269 Ind. 677, 683 , 382 N.E.2d 920, 924 , cert. denied (1979), 441 U.S. 912 , 99 S.Ct. 2010 , 60 L.Ed.2d 384 ; Ortiz v. State (1976), 265 Ind. 549, 555 , 356 N.E.2d 1188, 1192 ; Ward v. State (1980), Ind.App., 408 N.E.2d 140, 143 ; White v. State (1980), Ind.App., 404 N.E.2d 1144, 1146 ; Perry v. State (1978), Ind.App., 374 N.E.2d 558 . 1981See, Long v. State (1981), Ind., 422 N.E.2d 284, 286 ; Turner v. State (1980), Ind., 407 N.E.2d 235, 238 ; Love v. State (1980), Ind., 400 N.E.2d 1371, 1373 ; Turpin v. State (1980), Ind., 400 N.E.2d 1119, 1121 ; Harrison v. State (1978), 269 Ind. 677, 683 , 382 N.E.2d 920, 924 , cert. denied (1979), 441 U.S. 912 , 99 S.Ct. 2010 , 60 L.Ed.2d 384 ; Ortiz v. State (1976), 265 Ind. 549, 555 , 356 N.E.2d 1188, 1192 ; Ward v. State (1980), Ind.App., 408 N.E.2d 140, 143 ; White v. State (1980), Ind.App., 404 N.E.2d 1144, 1146 ; Perry v. State (1978), Ind.App., 374 N.E.2d 558 .	1	1981–1981
Harrison v. State green ind · 1978 2 sentences 1981See, Long v. State (1981), Ind., 422 N.E.2d 284, 286 ; Turner v. State (1980), Ind., 407 N.E.2d 235, 238 ; Love v. State (1980), Ind., 400 N.E.2d 1371, 1373 ; Turpin v. State (1980), Ind., 400 N.E.2d 1119, 1121 ; Harrison v. State (1978), 269 Ind. 677, 683 , 382 N.E.2d 920, 924 , cert. denied (1979), 441 U.S. 912 , 99 S.Ct. 2010 , 60 L.Ed.2d 384 ; Ortiz v. State (1976), 265 Ind. 549, 555 , 356 N.E.2d 1188, 1192 ; Ward v. State (1980), Ind.App., 408 N.E.2d 140, 143 ; White v. State (1980), Ind.App., 404 N.E.2d 1144, 1146 ; Perry v. State (1978), Ind.App., 374 N.E.2d 558 . 1981See, Long v. State (1981), Ind., 422 N.E.2d 284, 286 ; Turner v. State (1980), Ind., 407 N.E.2d 235, 238 ; Love v. State (1980), Ind., 400 N.E.2d 1371, 1373 ; Turpin v. State (1980), Ind., 400 N.E.2d 1119, 1121 ; Harrison v. State (1978), 269 Ind. 677, 683 , 382 N.E.2d 920, 924 , cert. denied (1979), 441 U.S. 912 , 99 S.Ct. 2010 , 60 L.Ed.2d 384 ; Ortiz v. State (1976), 265 Ind. 549, 555 , 356 N.E.2d 1188, 1192 ; Ward v. State (1980), Ind.App., 408 N.E.2d 140, 143 ; White v. State (1980), Ind.App., 404 N.E.2d 1144, 1146 ; Perry v. State (1978), Ind.App., 374 N.E.2d 558 .	1	1981–1981
White v. State green indctapp · 1980	1	1981–1981
Turpin v. State green ind · 1980 2 sentences 1981See, Long v. State (1981), Ind., 422 N.E.2d 284, 286 ; Turner v. State (1980), Ind., 407 N.E.2d 235, 238 ; Love v. State (1980), Ind., 400 N.E.2d 1371, 1373 ; Turpin v. State (1980), Ind., 400 N.E.2d 1119, 1121 ; Harrison v. State (1978), 269 Ind. 677, 683 , 382 N.E.2d 920, 924 , cert. denied (1979), 441 U.S. 912 , 99 S.Ct. 2010 , 60 L.Ed.2d 384 ; Ortiz v. State (1976), 265 Ind. 549, 555 , 356 N.E.2d 1188, 1192 ; Ward v. State (1980), Ind.App., 408 N.E.2d 140, 143 ; White v. State (1980), Ind.App., 404 N.E.2d 1144, 1146 ; Perry v. State (1978), Ind.App., 374 N.E.2d 558 . 1981See, Long, supra; Love, supra; Turpin, supra; Harrison, supra; Ortiz, supra. A mere exhortation by the police that it would be better for the accused to tell the truth when unaccompanied by a promise of immunity or leniency does not render a subsequent confession involuntary.	1	1981–1981
Love v. State green ind · 1980	1	1981–1981
Harrison v. Indiana green scotus · 1979 1 sentence 1981See, Long v. State (1981), Ind., 422 N.E.2d 284, 286 ; Turner v. State (1980), Ind., 407 N.E.2d 235, 238 ; Love v. State (1980), Ind., 400 N.E.2d 1371, 1373 ; Turpin v. State (1980), Ind., 400 N.E.2d 1119, 1121 ; Harrison v. State (1978), 269 Ind. 677, 683 , 382 N.E.2d 920, 924 , cert. denied (1979), 441 U.S. 912 , 99 S.Ct. 2010 , 60 L.Ed.2d 384 ; Ortiz v. State (1976), 265 Ind. 549, 555 , 356 N.E.2d 1188, 1192 ; Ward v. State (1980), Ind.App., 408 N.E.2d 140, 143 ; White v. State (1980), Ind.App., 404 N.E.2d 1144, 1146 ; Perry v. State (1978), Ind.App., 374 N.E.2d 558 .	1	1981–1981
Green v. Wyrick green scotus · 1979	1	1981–1981
Perry v. State neutral indctapp · 1978 1 sentence 1981See, Long v. State (1981), Ind., 422 N.E.2d 284, 286 ; Turner v. State (1980), Ind., 407 N.E.2d 235, 238 ; Love v. State (1980), Ind., 400 N.E.2d 1371, 1373 ; Turpin v. State (1980), Ind., 400 N.E.2d 1119, 1121 ; Harrison v. State (1978), 269 Ind. 677, 683 , 382 N.E.2d 920, 924 , cert. denied (1979), 441 U.S. 912 , 99 S.Ct. 2010 , 60 L.Ed.2d 384 ; Ortiz v. State (1976), 265 Ind. 549, 555 , 356 N.E.2d 1188, 1192 ; Ward v. State (1980), Ind.App., 408 N.E.2d 140, 143 ; White v. State (1980), Ind.App., 404 N.E.2d 1144, 1146 ; Perry v. State (1978), Ind.App., 374 N.E.2d 558 .	1	1981–1981

Statutes the citing opinions construe

IN § Ind. Code § 35-42-4-3 (8) IN § Ind. Code § 35-42-5-1 (6) IN § Ind. Code § 35-42-1-1 (4) IN § Ind. Code § 35-42-4-1 (4) IN § Ind. Code § 35-38-1-3 (3)

Counted by distinct opinions that both name this issue and are annotated to the section; sections every opinion cites regardless of issue are not filtered here, so read the counts against the total above.

Where else courts name it

IN 29 (1976–2019) CA 29 (1921–2023) OR 18 (1958–2025) IL 15 (1930–2020) MO 14 (1902–2017) NY 13 (1867–2026) FL 12 (1976–2000) MN 11 (1983–2017) LA 10 (1987–2019) MA 9 (1978–2015) AK 8 (1988–2021) NJ 8 (1963–2025) TX 8 (1967–2023) PA 7 (1977–2017) AL 7 (1951–2023) MI 7 (1895–2024) WA 6 (2003–2025) NH 6 (1983–2021) OH 6 (1982–2019) OK 6 (1917–2016) MD 6 (1964–2001) AR 5 (1914–2010) CO 5 (1920–2005) SC 4 (1987–2023) AZ 3 (1927–1978) DC 3 (1987–2008) KS 2 (1922–1995) NC 2 (1818–1975) MS 2 (1994–2005) MT 2 (1925–1994) GA 2 (1947–1966) TN 2 (1989–1995) CT 2 (1999–2021) SD 2 (2006–2008) WV 2 (1898–1989)

Opinions by the citing court's state. A doctrine retained in one state and abandoned in another shows up here as a year span that stalls.

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