arrest claim (Georgia) · Go Syfert
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arrest claim in Georgia

25 Georgia opinions name it 2 courts 1900–2023 1 in the last five years

The cases below were cited by Georgia courts in a sentence that names this issue. Sides come from how each citing opinion treated the case (Syfertize flag on that citation), so a case can appear on both: that is where the law is contested. A red or yellow chip is the case's own overall treatment.

Followed or applied (24)

CaseFollowedCited
Kirby v. Stategreen
ga · 2018 · cited in 5 Georgia opinions naming this issue, 2019–2023
2 sentences

2023Pauldo, 309 Ga. at 135 (2) (noting that “basic biographical questions asked in relation to an arrest are an exception to Miranda because such ‘booking’ questions are unrelated to the investigation and serve a legitimate administrative need and therefore do not qualify as interrogation”) (citing Kirby v. State, 304 Ga. 472, 476 (2) (b) (819 SE2d 468) (2018).

2023Pauldo, 309 Ga. at 135 (2) (noting that “basic biographical questions asked in relation to an arrest are an exception to Miranda because such ‘booking’ questions are unrelated to the investigation and serve a legitimate administrative need and therefore do not qualify as interrogation”) (citing Kirby v. State, 304 Ga. 472, 476 (2) (b) (819 SE2d 468) (2018).

55
Pennsylvania v. Munizgreen
scotus · 1990 · cited in 3 Georgia opinions naming this issue, 2018–2023
2 sentences

2018Basic biographical questions asked in relation to an arrest are an exception to Miranda because such "booking" questions are unrelated to the investigation and serve a legitimate administrative need and therefore do not qualify as "interrogation." See Pennsylvania v. Muniz , 496 U.S. 582 , 601-602, 110 S.Ct. 2638 , 110 L.Ed.2d 528 (1990) (plurality); Franks v. State , 268 Ga. 238 , 239, 486 S.E.2d 594 (1997).

2018Basic biographical questions asked in relation to an arrest are an exception to Miranda because such "booking" questions are unrelated to the investigation and serve a legitimate administrative need and therefore do not qualify as "interrogation." See Pennsylvania v. Muniz , 496 U.S. 582 , 601-602, 110 S.Ct. 2638 , 110 L.Ed.2d 528 (1990) (plurality); Franks v. State , 268 Ga. 238 , 239, 486 S.E.2d 594 (1997).

23
Franks v. Stategreen
ga · 1997 · cited in 3 Georgia opinions naming this issue, 2018–2023
2 sentences

2018Basic biographical questions asked in relation to an arrest are an exception to Miranda because such "booking" questions are unrelated to the investigation and serve a legitimate administrative need and therefore do not qualify as "interrogation." See Pennsylvania v. Muniz , 496 U.S. 582 , 601-602, 110 S.Ct. 2638 , 110 L.Ed.2d 528 (1990) (plurality); Franks v. State , 268 Ga. 238 , 239, 486 S.E.2d 594 (1997).

2018Basic biographical questions asked in relation to an arrest are an exception to Miranda because such "booking" questions are unrelated to the investigation and serve a legitimate administrative need and therefore do not qualify as "interrogation." See Pennsylvania v. Muniz , 496 U.S. 582 , 601-602, 110 S.Ct. 2638 , 110 L.Ed.2d 528 (1990) (plurality); Franks v. State , 268 Ga. 238 , 239, 486 S.E.2d 594 (1997).

23
Simmons v. Kroger Co.green
gactapp · 1995 · cited in 2 Georgia opinions naming this issue, 2002–2003
2 sentences

2003It is well settled that “[t]he elements of a false arrest claim include: (1) an arrest under the process of law, (2) without probable cause, and (3) made maliciously.” Desmond v. Troncalli Mitsubishi, 243 Ga. App. 71, 74 (2) ( 532 SE2d 463 ) (2000), citing OCGA § 51-7-1; Simmons v. Kroger Co., 218 Ga. App. 721, 722-723 (1) ( 463 SE2d 159 ) (1995).

2003It is well settled that “[t]he elements of a false arrest claim include: (1) an arrest under the process of law, (2) without probable cause, and (3) made maliciously.” Desmond v. Troncalli Mitsubishi, 243 Ga. App. 71, 74 (2) ( 532 SE2d 463 ) (2000), citing OCGA § 51-7-1; Simmons v. Kroger Co., 218 Ga. App. 721, 722-723 (1) ( 463 SE2d 159 ) (1995).

22
Collins v. Sadlogreen
gactapp · 1983 · cited in 2 Georgia opinions naming this issue, 1990–1991
2 sentences

1991See generally Collins v. Sadlo, 167 Ga. App. 317 ( 306 SE2d 390 ) (1983).” Williams v. Smith, 179 Ga. App. 712, 714 ( 348 SE2d 50 ) (1986).

1991See generally Collins v. Sadlo, 167 Ga. App. 317 ( 306 SE2d 390 ) (1983).” Williams v. Smith, 179 Ga. App. 712, 714 ( 348 SE2d 50 ) (1986).

22
Swift v. Witchardgreen
ga · 1897 · cited in 2 Georgia opinions naming this issue, 1900–2013
2 sentences

2013See Swift, 103 Ga. at 193 (2) (noting that “there must at least have been an arrest and an inquiry before a committing court,” before a malicious prosecution claim is actionable) (emphasis supplied).

1900In Swift v. Witchard, 103 Ga. 193 , it was held that before a criminal prosecution will be actionable there must at least have been an arrest and an inquiry before a committing court.

12
State v. Pauldogreen
ga · 2020 · cited in 1 Georgia opinions naming this issue, 2023–2023
2 sentences

2023Pauldo, 309 Ga. at 135 (2) (noting that “basic biographical questions asked in relation to an arrest are an exception to Miranda because such 20 The fact that other law enforcement officers, including the arresting officer and another detention officer, were in the booking area during the pat- down search does not convert this routine search into a custodial interrogation.

2023Pauldo, 309 Ga. at 135 (2) (noting that “basic biographical questions asked in relation to an arrest are an exception to Miranda because such ‘booking’ questions are unrelated to the investigation and serve a legitimate administrative need and therefore do not qualify as interrogation”) (citing Kirby v. State, 304 Ga. 472, 476 (2) (b) (819 SE2d 468) (2018).

11
Illinois v. Gatesgreen
scotus · 1983 · cited in 1 Georgia opinions naming this issue, 2020–2020
2 sentences

2020Bailey v. Board of County Commrs., 956 F2d 1112, 1119 (III) (A) (1) n. 4 (11th Cir. 1992). 1 42 USC § 1983 relevantly provides that every person who, under color of statute, custom or usage of any state, subjects or causes to be subjected, any citizen of or person within the jurisdiction of the United States to the deprivation of any rights secured by the Constitution and laws, shall be liable to the party injured in an action at law. 11 “[P]robable cause requires only a probability or substantial chance of any criminal activity.” Illinois v. Gates, 462 U. S. 213, 243 (IV) n. 13 ( 103 SCt 2317

2020Bailey v. Board of County Commrs., 956 F2d 1112, 1119 (III) (A) (1) n. 4 (11th Cir. 1992). 1 42 USC § 1983 relevantly provides that every person who, under color of statute, custom or usage of any state, subjects or causes to be subjected, any citizen of or person within the jurisdiction of the United States to the deprivation of any rights secured by the Constitution and laws, shall be liable to the party injured in an action at law. 11 “[P]robable cause requires only a probability or substantial chance of any criminal activity.” Illinois v. Gates, 462 U. S. 213, 243 (IV) n. 13 ( 103 SCt 2317

11
Mack v. Stategreen
ga · 2014 · cited in 1 Georgia opinions naming this issue, 2020–2020
1 sentence

2020Once a defendant invokes his rights, subsequent statements by the defendant are admissible only if “the defendant himself initiates the communications with law enforcement authorities.” Mack, 296 Ga. at 244 (2) (following invocation of the right to remain silent).

11
United States v. Sedgreen
ca3 · 2010 · cited in 1 Georgia opinions naming this issue, 2016–2016
2 sentences

2016With regard to the exclusionary rule issue in this case, for example, I note that the Supreme Court of the United States has held that a warrantless arrest for crimes committed in the presence of an arresting officer may be reasonable under the Fourth Amendment even if the arrest was in violation of a state arrest statute, see Virginia v. Moore, 553 U. S. 164, 177-178 ( 128 SCt 1598 , 170 LE2d 559) (2008), and several lower courts have rejected exclusion of evidence for violations of state statutes limiting the territorial jurisdiction of the arresting officer, see, e.g., United States v. Sed,

2016With regard to the exclusionary rule issue in this case, for example, I note that the Supreme Court of the United States has held that a warrantless arrest for crimes committed in the presence of an arresting officer may be reasonable under the Fourth Amendment even if the arrest was in violation of a state arrest statute, see Virginia v. Moore, 553 U.S. 164, 177-178 ( 128 SCt 1598 , 170 LE2d 559) (2008), and several lower courts have rejected exclusion of evidence for violations of state statutes limiting the territorial jurisdiction of the arresting officer, see, e.g., United States v. Sed,

11
Virginia v. Mooregreen
scotus · 2008 · cited in 1 Georgia opinions naming this issue, 2016–2016
2 sentences

2016With regard to the exclusionary rule issue in this case, for example, I note that the Supreme Court of the United States has held that a warrantless arrest for crimes committed in the presence of an arresting officer may be reasonable under the Fourth Amendment even if the arrest was in violation of a state arrest statute, see Virginia v. Moore, 553 U. S. 164, 177-178 ( 128 SCt 1598 , 170 LE2d 559) (2008), and several lower courts have rejected exclusion of evidence for violations of state statutes limiting the territorial jurisdiction of the arresting officer, see, e.g., United States v. Sed,

2016With regard to the exclusionary rule issue in this case, for example, I note that the Supreme Court of the United States has held that a warrantless arrest for crimes committed in the presence of an arresting officer may be reasonable under the Fourth Amendment even if the arrest was in violation of a state arrest statute, see Virginia v. Moore, 553 U. S. 164, 177-178 ( 128 SCt 1598 , 170 LE2d 559) (2008), and several lower courts have rejected exclusion of evidence for violations of state statutes limiting the territorial jurisdiction of the arresting officer, see, e.g., United States v. Sed,

11
State v. Smithgreen
nh · 2006 · cited in 1 Georgia opinions naming this issue, 2016–2016
2 sentences

2016With regard to the exclusionary rule issue in this case, for example, I note that the Supreme Court of the United States has held that a warrantless arrest for crimes committed in the presence of an arresting officer may be reasonable under the Fourth Amendment even if the arrest was in violation of a state arrest statute, see Virginia v. Moore, 553 U. S. 164, 177-178 ( 128 SCt 1598 , 170 LE2d 559) (2008), and several lower courts have rejected exclusion of evidence for violations of state statutes limiting the territorial jurisdiction of the arresting officer, see, e.g., United States v. Sed,

2016With regard to the exclusionary rule issue in this case, for example, I note that the Supreme Court of the United States has held that a warrantless arrest for crimes committed in the presence of an arresting officer may be reasonable under the Fourth Amendment even if the arrest was in violation of a state arrest statute, see Virginia v. Moore, 553 U.S. 164, 177-178 ( 128 SCt 1598 , 170 LE2d 559) (2008), and several lower courts have rejected exclusion of evidence for violations of state statutes limiting the territorial jurisdiction of the arresting officer, see, e.g., United States v. Sed,

11
Gilbert v. Associated Mortgage Companies Inc.green
gactapp · 1940 · cited in 1 Georgia opinions naming this issue, 2006–2006
2 sentences

2006“The restraint constituting a false imprisonment may arise out of words, acts, gestures or the like, which induce a reasonable apprehension that force will be used if plaintiff does not submit; and it is sufficient if they operate upon the will of the person threatened, and result in a reasonable fear of personal difficulty or personal injuries.” (Citation and punctuation omitted.) Sinclair Refining Co. v. Meek, 62 Ga. App. 850, 854 (3) ( 10 SE2d 76 ) (1940).

2006"The restraint constituting a false imprisonment may arise out of words, acts, gestures or the like, which induce a reasonable apprehension that force will be used if plaintiff does not submit; and it is sufficient if they operate upon the will of the person threatened, and result in a reasonable fear of personal difficulty or personal injuries." (Citations and punctuation omitted.) Sinclair Refining Co. v. Meek, 62 Ga.App. 850, 854 (3), 10 S.E.2d 76 (1940).

11
Gantt v. Patient Communications Systems, Inc.green
gactapp · 1991 · cited in 1 Georgia opinions naming this issue, 2006–2006
2 sentences

2006Gantt v. Patient Communications Systems, 200 Ga. App. 35, 38 , 406 S.E.2d 796 (1991); Mohamud v. Wachovia Corp., 260 Ga.App. 612 , 580 S.E.2d 259 (2003).

2006Gantt v. Patient Communications Systems, 200 Ga. App. 35, 38 , 406 S.E.2d 796 (1991); Mohamud v. Wachovia Corp., 260 Ga.App. 612 , 580 S.E.2d 259 (2003).

11
Desmond v. Troncalli Mitsubishigreen
gactapp · 2000 · cited in 1 Georgia opinions naming this issue, 2003–2003
2 sentences

2003It is well settled that “[t]he elements of a false arrest claim include: (1) an arrest under the process of law, (2) without probable cause, and (3) made maliciously.” Desmond v. Troncalli Mitsubishi, 243 Ga. App. 71, 74 (2) ( 532 SE2d 463 ) (2000), citing OCGA § 51-7-1; Simmons v. Kroger Co., 218 Ga. App. 721, 722-723 (1) ( 463 SE2d 159 ) (1995).

2003It is well settled that “[t]he elements of a false arrest claim include: (1) an arrest under the process of law, (2) without probable cause, and (3) made maliciously.” Desmond v. Troncalli Mitsubishi, 243 Ga. App. 71, 74 (2) ( 532 SE2d 463 ) (2000), citing OCGA § 51-7-1; Simmons v. Kroger Co., 218 Ga. App. 721, 722-723 (1) ( 463 SE2d 159 ) (1995).

11
Stanford v. City of Manchestergreen
gactapp · 2000 · cited in 1 Georgia opinions naming this issue, 2003–2003
2 sentences

2003See Stanford v. City of Manchester, 246 Ga. App. 129, 130-131 (1) (c) ( 539 SE2d 845 ) (2000); Franklin, supra; Stover v. Watson, 180 Ga. App. 16 ( 348 SE2d 463 ) (1986) (physical precedent only).

2003See Stanford v. City of Manchester, 246 Ga. App. 129, 130-131 (1) (c) ( 539 SE2d 845 ) (2000); Franklin, supra; Stover v. Watson, 180 Ga. App. 16 ( 348 SE2d 463 ) (1986) (physical precedent only).

11
Davis v. Stategreen
ga · 2000 · cited in 1 Georgia opinions naming this issue, 2001–2001
1 sentence

2001Davis, supra at 334 (7).

11
Thompson v. Stategreen
gactapp · 1985 · cited in 1 Georgia opinions naming this issue, 2000–2000
2 sentences

2000Thompson v. State, 175 Ga. App. 645, 648 (3) ( 334 SE2d 312 ) (1985). 2.

2000Thompson v. State, 175 Ga. App. 645, 648 (3) ( 334 SE2d 312 ) (1985). 2.

11
State v. Richardsongreen
gactapp · 1988 · cited in 1 Georgia opinions naming this issue, 1997–1997
2 sentences

1997See OCGA § 40-6-392 (a) (1); State v. Richardson, 186 Ga. App. 888, 889 ( 368 SE2d 825 ) (1988). *440 While the defendant’s testimony could not prove, identify, or interpret the results, the defendant could testify to taking the test and how long after the arrest the test was made.

1997See OCGA § 40-6-392 (a) (1); State v. Richardson, 186 Ga. App. 888, 889 ( 368 SE2d 825 ) (1988). *440 While the defendant’s testimony could not prove, identify, or interpret the results, the defendant could testify to taking the test and how long after the arrest the test was made.

11
K-Mart Corp. v. Cokergreen
ga · 1991 · cited in 1 Georgia opinions naming this issue, 1995–1995
2 sentences

1995K-Mart Corp. v. Coker, 261 Ga. 745, 746 (1) ( 410 SE2d 425 ) (1991).

1995K-Mart Corp. v. Coker, 261 Ga. 745, 746 (1) ( 410 SE2d 425 ) (1991).

11
Williams v. Smithgreen
gactapp · 1986 · cited in 1 Georgia opinions naming this issue, 1991–1991
2 sentences

1991See generally Collins v. Sadlo, 167 Ga. App. 317 ( 306 SE2d 390 ) (1983).” Williams v. Smith, 179 Ga. App. 712, 714 ( 348 SE2d 50 ) (1986).

1991See generally Collins v. Sadlo, 167 Ga. App. 317 ( 306 SE2d 390 ) (1983).” Williams v. Smith, 179 Ga. App. 712, 714 ( 348 SE2d 50 ) (1986).

11
McCord v. Jonesgreen
gactapp · 1983 · cited in 1 Georgia opinions naming this issue, 1990–1990
2 sentences

1990Thus, I would hold that appellees Ingram and Dunn were entitled to summary judgment on the false arrest claim “on the ground that no [such] cause of action had yet accrued.” McCord v. Jones, supra, 168 Ga. App. at 893 . 2.

1990Thus, I would hold that appellees Ingram and Dunn were entitled to summary judgment on the false arrest claim "on the ground that no [such] cause of action had yet accrued." McCord v. Jones, supra, 168 Ga. App. at 893 . 2.

11
Morgan v. Stategreen
ga · 1978 · cited in 1 Georgia opinions naming this issue, 1983–1983
2 sentences

1983See in this connection Morgan v. State, 241 Ga. 485, 486-488 (1) ( 246 SE2d 198 ); Ellis v. State, 248 Ga. 414 (1), 415 ( 283 SE2d 870 ); Borden v. State, 247 Ga. 477, 479 (2), 480 ( 277 SE2d 9 ).

1983See in this connection Morgan v. State, 241 Ga. 485, 486-488 (1) ( 246 SE2d 198 ); Ellis v. State, 248 Ga. 414 (1), 415 ( 283 SE2d 870 ); Borden v. State, 247 Ga. 477, 479 (2), 480 ( 277 SE2d 9 ).

11
Borden v. Stategreen
ga · 1981 · cited in 1 Georgia opinions naming this issue, 1983–1983
11

Distinguished, questioned or overruled (1)

CaseNegativeCited
Riley v. Cal. United Statesgreen
· 2014 · cited in 2 Georgia opinions naming this issue, 2015–2015
2 sentences

2015But see Riley v. California, _ U. S. _ (IV) ( 134 SCt 2473 , 189 LE2d 430) (2014) (search incident to an arrest exception does not apply to cell phones and, except under exigent circumstances or other case-specific exceptions, the warrantless search of a cell phone is unconstitutional). 5 OCGA § 17-8-75 provides: Where counsel in the hearing of the jury make statements of prejudicial matters which are not in evidence, it is the duty of the court to interpose and prevent the same.

2015But see Riley v. California, ___ U. S. ___ (IV) ( 134 SCt 2473 , 189 LE2d 430) (2014) (search incident to an arrest exception does not apply to cell phones and, except under exigent circumstances or other case-specific exceptions, the warrantless search of a cell phone is unconstitutional). 8 prosecutor suggested jurors use their common sense and consider the evidence as if it were being reported in a newspaper.

22

Also cited on this issue (6)

CaseCitedYears
Birchfield v. N. Dakota. William Robert Bernard green
scotus · 2016
2 sentences

2018In addition to finding that the stop was supported by reasonable articulable suspicion, the trial court found that per Birchfield v. North Dakota , --- U.S. ----, 136 S.Ct. 2160 , 2176-2184 (V) (B)-(C), 195 L.Ed.2d 560 (2016), the Fourth Amendment permits warrantless breath tests within the search incident to an arrest exception.

2018In addition to finding that the stop was supported by reasonable articulable suspicion, the trial court found that per Birchfield v. North Dakota , --- U.S. ----, 136 S.Ct. 2160 , 2176-2184 (V) (B)-(C), 195 L.Ed.2d 560 (2016), the Fourth Amendment permits warrantless breath tests within the search incident to an arrest exception.

12018–2018
Sinclair Refining Co. v. Meek green
gactapp · 1940
2 sentences

2006“The restraint constituting a false imprisonment may arise out of words, acts, gestures or the like, which induce a reasonable apprehension that force will be used if plaintiff does not submit; and it is sufficient if they operate upon the will of the person threatened, and result in a reasonable fear of personal difficulty or personal injuries.” (Citation and punctuation omitted.) Sinclair Refining Co. v. Meek, 62 Ga. App. 850, 854 (3) ( 10 SE2d 76 ) (1940).

2006"The restraint constituting a false imprisonment may arise out of words, acts, gestures or the like, which induce a reasonable apprehension that force will be used if plaintiff does not submit; and it is sufficient if they operate upon the will of the person threatened, and result in a reasonable fear of personal difficulty or personal injuries." (Citations and punctuation omitted.) Sinclair Refining Co. v. Meek, 62 Ga.App. 850, 854 (3), 10 S.E.2d 76 (1940).

12006–2006
Mohamud v. Wachovia Corp. green
gactapp · 2003
2 sentences

2006Gantt v. Patient Communications Systems, 200 Ga. App. 35, 38 , 406 S.E.2d 796 (1991); Mohamud v. Wachovia Corp., 260 Ga.App. 612 , 580 S.E.2d 259 (2003).

2006Gantt v. Patient Communications Systems, 200 Ga. App. 35, 38 , 406 S.E.2d 796 (1991); Mohamud v. Wachovia Corp., 260 Ga.App. 612 , 580 S.E.2d 259 (2003).

12006–2006
Franklin v. Consolidated Government of Columbus green
gactapp · 1999
1 sentence

2003See Stanford v. City of Manchester, 246 Ga. App. 129, 130-131 (1) (c) ( 539 SE2d 845 ) (2000); Franklin, supra; Stover v. Watson, 180 Ga. App. 16 ( 348 SE2d 463 ) (1986) (physical precedent only).

12003–2003
Stover v. Watson neutral
gactapp · 1986
2 sentences

2003See Stanford v. City of Manchester, 246 Ga. App. 129, 130-131 (1) (c) ( 539 SE2d 845 ) (2000); Franklin, supra; Stover v. Watson, 180 Ga. App. 16 ( 348 SE2d 463 ) (1986) (physical precedent only).

2003See Stanford v. City of Manchester, 246 Ga. App. 129, 130-131 (1) (c) ( 539 SE2d 845 ) (2000); Franklin, supra; Stover v. Watson, 180 Ga. App. 16 ( 348 SE2d 463 ) (1986) (physical precedent only).

12003–2003
Ellis v. State green
ga · 1981
2 sentences

1983See in this connection Morgan v. State, 241 Ga. 485, 486-488 (1) ( 246 SE2d 198 ); Ellis v. State, 248 Ga. 414 (1), 415 ( 283 SE2d 870 ); Borden v. State, 247 Ga. 477, 479 (2), 480 ( 277 SE2d 9 ).

1983See in this connection Morgan v. State, 241 Ga. 485, 486-488 (1) ( 246 SE2d 198 ); Ellis v. State, 248 Ga. 414 (1), 415 ( 283 SE2d 870 ); Borden v. State, 247 Ga. 477, 479 (2), 480 ( 277 SE2d 9 ).

11983–1983

Statutes the citing opinions construe

GA § 51-7-1 (7) GA § 16-5-2 (4) GA § 17-4-20 (4) GA § 51-7-20 (4) GA § 51-7-3 (4) GA § 9-11-56 (4) GA § 51-7-2 (3)

Counted by distinct opinions that both name this issue and are annotated to the section; sections every opinion cites regardless of issue are not filtered here, so read the counts against the total above.

Where else courts name it

NY 50 (1912–2023) CA 40 (1962–2024) OH 27 (1976–2026) TX 26 (1969–2024) IL 26 (1969–2025) GA 25 (1900–2023) FL 24 (1965–2024) IN 19 (1926–2016) MD 19 (1960–2019) LA 18 (1961–2019) WI 18 (1976–2026) PA 17 (1971–2018) MO 16 (1921–2024) MI 14 (1980–2026) NJ 14 (1964–2026) DC 14 (1982–2023) OR 13 (1962–2024) CT 13 (1989–2024) NM 10 (1980–2025) AR 10 (1980–2026) IA 10 (1917–2024) KY 8 (2006–2026) WA 8 (1915–1999) SC 8 (1901–2020) AL 7 (1986–1995) AZ 7 (1974–2015) MA 7 (1980–2019) VA 6 (1997–2021) CO 6 (1984–2019) TN 5 (2000–2017) WV 5 (1980–2007) OK 5 (1950–1986) AK 5 (1973–2004) ME 5 (1980–2010) NC 4 (1976–2019) ID 4 (1970–1994) MN 4 (1978–2006) VT 3 (1993–2013) HI 3 (1872–1995) MT 3 (1999–2021) SD 3 (1915–2010) RI 2 (2005–2011) PR 2 (1953–1954) NE 2 (1912–2018) DE 2 (2019–2019)

Opinions by the citing court's state. A doctrine retained in one state and abandoned in another shows up here as a year span that stalls.

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