Reed test (Maryland) · Go Syfert
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Reed test in Maryland

29 Maryland opinions name it 2 courts 1975–2024 1 in the last five years

The cases below were cited by Maryland courts in a sentence that names this issue. Sides come from how each citing opinion treated the case (Syfertize flag on that citation), so a case can appear on both: that is where the law is contested. A red or yellow chip is the case's own overall treatment.

Followed or applied (17)

CaseFollowedCited
Reed v. Stategreen
md · 1978 · cited in 13 Maryland opinions naming this issue, 1981–2020
2 sentences

2020See Reed, 283 Md. at 381, 389 , 391 A.2d at 368, 372 ; see also Dixon v. Ford Motor Co., 433 Md. 137, 149-50 , 70 A.3d 328, 335 (2013) (“A Frye/Reed analysis is required, as a prerequisite to the application of Rule 5-702, only when the proposed expert testimony involves a ‘novel scientific method,’ in which event there must be some assurance that the novel method has gained general acceptance within the relevant scientific community.”).

2020See Reed, 283 Md. at 381, 389 , 391 A.2d at 368, 372 ; see also Dixon v. Ford Motor Co., 433 Md. 137, 149-50 , 70 A.3d 328, 335 (2013) (“A Frye/Reed analysis is required, as a prerequisite to the application of Rule 5-702, only when the proposed expert testimony involves a ‘novel scientific method,’ in which event there must be some assurance that the novel method has gained general acceptance within the relevant scientific community.”).

613
Frye v. United Statesred
cadc · 1923 · cited in 10 Maryland opinions naming this issue, 1996–2018
2 sentences

1999ADMISSIBILITY OF POST-HYPNOTIC TESTIMONY This Court holds that, because Ms. Wallech’s change in memory came after she was hypnotized, under the Frye/Reed test, see Frye v. United States, 293 F. 1013 (D.C.Cir.1923) and Reed v. State, 283 Md. 374 , 391 A.2d 364 (1978), that there is insufficient scientific proof that her post-hypnotic memory is reliable.

1999The Frye/Reed standard refers to the principles articulated in Frye v. United States, 293 F. 1013 (D.C.Cir.1923) and Reed v. State, 283 Md. 374 , 391 A.2d 364 (1978). 3 .

310
Blackwell v. Wyethgreen
md · 2009 · cited in 5 Maryland opinions naming this issue, 2009–2018
2 sentences

2018The case reached the Court of Appeals, which framed the "essence" of the issue before it as whether the Frye - Reed test applies "to the analysis undertaken by an expert where the underlying data and methods for gathering this data are generally accepted in the scientific community but applied to support a novel theory" of medical causation. 408 Md. at 596 , 971 A.2d 235 .

2018The case reached the Court of Appeals, which framed the "essence" of the issue before it as whether the Frye - Reed test applies "to the analysis undertaken by an expert where the underlying data and methods for gathering this data are generally accepted in the scientific community but applied to support a novel theory" of medical causation. 408 Md. at 596 , 971 A.2d 235 .

35
Schultz v. Stategreen
mdctspecapp · 1995 · cited in 3 Maryland opinions naming this issue, 1999–2018
2 sentences

2018See Kelley v. State , 288 Md. 298 , 302, 418 A.2d 217 (1980) (applying Frye - Reed general acceptance test to hold that "testimony which directly or indirectly conveys the results of [a polygraph] test[ ] should not be admitted"); State v. Collins , 296 Md. 670 , 464 A.2d 1028 (1983) (applying Frye - Reed test to hold that expert opinion about hypnotically enhanced witness testimony is inadmissible); U.S. Gypsum Co. v. Mayor and City Council of Baltimore , 336 Md. 145 , 182-83, 647 A.2d 405 (1994) (applying Frye - Reed test to hold that surface dust sampling to determine asbestos contamination

2018App. 145 , 664 A.2d 60 (1995) (holding that the Frye - Reed test does apply to horizontal gaze nystagmus field sobriety tests, and taking judicial notice of the general acceptance of those tests); Keene Corp., Inc. v. Hall , 96 Md.

23
Dixon v. Ford Motor Co.green
md · 2013 · cited in 2 Maryland opinions naming this issue, 2015–2020
2 sentences

2020See Reed, 283 Md. at 381, 389 , 391 A.2d at 368, 372 ; see also Dixon v. Ford Motor Co., 433 Md. 137, 149-50 , 70 A.3d 328, 335 (2013) (“A Frye/Reed analysis is required, as a prerequisite to the application of Rule 5-702, only when the proposed expert testimony involves a ‘novel scientific method,’ in which event there must be some assurance that the novel method has gained general acceptance within the relevant scientific community.”).

2020See Reed, 283 Md. at 381, 389 , 391 A.2d at 368, 372 ; see also Dixon v. Ford Motor Co., 433 Md. 137, 149-50 , 70 A.3d 328, 335 (2013) (“A Frye/Reed analysis is required, as a prerequisite to the application of Rule 5-702, only when the proposed expert testimony involves a ‘novel scientific method,’ in which event there must be some assurance that the novel method has gained general acceptance within the relevant scientific community.”).

22
Addison v. Stategreen
mdctspecapp · 2009 · cited in 2 Maryland opinions naming this issue, 2018–2018
2 sentences

2018App. 165 , 181, 981 A.2d 698 (2009) (declining to address a Frye - Reed issue raised on appeal and observing that "the grounds for the objection were vague.

2018App. 165 , 180, 981 A.2d 698 (2009) ("[W]e ... review the record and independently apply the Frye / Reed test de novo.").

22
CSX Transportation, Inc. v. Millergreen
mdctspecapp · 2004 · cited in 5 Maryland opinions naming this issue, 2009–2018
2 sentences

2018App. at 186 , 858 A.2d 1025 , was not subject to the Frye - Reed test. *715 A doctor's opinion as to the etiology of his patient's arthritis is simply not the type of thing contemplated by the phrase 'new and novel scientific technique.' *897 What is contemplated are new, and arguably questionable, techniques such as lie detector tests, breathalyzer tests, paraffin tests, DNA identification, voiceprint identification, as in the Reed case itself, and the use of polarized light microscopy to identify asbestos fibers ....

2018App. 123 , 858 A.2d 1025 (2004), cert. granted , 384 Md. 581 , 865 A.2d 589 , cert. dismissed , 387 Md. 351 , 875 A.2d 702 (2005), the judge concluded that the medical causation opinions being offered by the Allens' expert witnesses were not of the type requiring a Frye - Reed analysis.

15
Savage v. Stategreen
md · 2017 · cited in 3 Maryland opinions naming this issue, 2018–2018
2 sentences

2018Since we adopted the Frye standard in Reed v. State , we have often had the occasion to elaborate on the development and application of the Frye - Reed standard. *252 Savage v. State , 455 Md. 138 , 157-58, 166 A.3d 183 (2017).

2018Since we adopted the Frye standard in Reed v. State , we have often had the occasion to elaborate on the development and application of the Frye - Reed standard. *252 Savage v. State , 455 Md. 138 , 157-58, 166 A.3d 183 (2017).

13
United States Gypsum Co. v. Mayor of Baltimoregreen
md · 1994 · cited in 3 Maryland opinions naming this issue, 1999–2018
2 sentences

2018See Kelley v. State , 288 Md. 298 , 302, 418 A.2d 217 (1980) (applying Frye - Reed general acceptance test to hold that "testimony which directly or indirectly conveys the results of [a polygraph] test[ ] should not be admitted"); State v. Collins , 296 Md. 670 , 464 A.2d 1028 (1983) (applying Frye - Reed test to hold that expert opinion about hypnotically enhanced witness testimony is inadmissible); U.S. Gypsum Co. v. Mayor and City Council of Baltimore , 336 Md. 145 , 182-83, 647 A.2d 405 (1994) (applying Frye - Reed test to hold that surface dust sampling to determine asbestos contamination

2018See Kelley v. State , 288 Md. 298 , 302, 418 A.2d 217 (1980) (applying Frye - Reed general acceptance test to hold that "testimony which directly or indirectly conveys the results of [a polygraph] test[ ] should not be admitted"); State v. Collins , 296 Md. 670 , 464 A.2d 1028 (1983) (applying Frye - Reed test to hold that expert opinion about hypnotically enhanced witness testimony is inadmissible); U.S. Gypsum Co. v. Mayor and City Council of Baltimore , 336 Md. 145 , 182-83, 647 A.2d 405 (1994) (applying Frye - Reed test to hold that surface dust sampling to determine asbestos contamination

13
Clemons v. Stategreen
md · 2006 · cited in 3 Maryland opinions naming this issue, 2009–2018
2 sentences

2018Assuming *457 without deciding that the Allens's proposed expert witness testimony that medical causation exists in fact was subject to a Frye - Reed analysis to be admissible, we nevertheless hold that *870 the trial court did not abuse its discretion by deciding the Frye - Reed issue without an evidentiary hearing and in ruling that Frye - Reed was satisfied. (d) In Clemons v. State , 392 Md. 339 , 896 A.2d 1059 (2006), the Court of Appeals held that Comparative Bullet Lead Analysis ("CBLA"), a scientific test that had been generally accepted as a forensic tool for decades, was no longer gen

2018Assuming *457 without deciding that the Allens's proposed expert witness testimony that medical causation exists in fact was subject to a Frye - Reed analysis to be admissible, we nevertheless hold that *870 the trial court did not abuse its discretion by deciding the Frye - Reed issue without an evidentiary hearing and in ruling that Frye - Reed was satisfied. (d) In Clemons v. State , 392 Md. 339 , 896 A.2d 1059 (2006), the Court of Appeals held that Comparative Bullet Lead Analysis ("CBLA"), a scientific test that had been generally accepted as a forensic tool for decades, was no longer gen

13
Alford v. Stategreen
mdctspecapp · 2018 · cited in 1 Maryland opinions naming this issue, 2018–2018
2 sentences

2018See Alford v. State , 236 Md.

2018App. 57 , 72, 180 A.3d 244 (2018) (holding that appellate court will not uphold, under Rule 5-702, trial court's decision to exclude expert witness's proffered testimony when the issue whether that testimony satisfied Rule 5-702 was not raised or decided below). 14 The limited remand in Chesson I resulted in the circuit court's holding a Frye - Reed hearing and ruling that the workers' expert witness's opinions were admissible.

11
Cobey v. Stategreen
mdctspecapp · 1987 · cited in 1 Maryland opinions naming this issue, 2018–2018
11
Kelley v. Stategreen
md · 1980 · cited in 1 Maryland opinions naming this issue, 2018–2018
2 sentences

2018See Kelley v. State , 288 Md. 298 , 302, 418 A.2d 217 (1980) (applying Frye - Reed general acceptance test to hold that "testimony which directly or indirectly conveys the results of [a polygraph] test[ ] should not be admitted"); State v. Collins , 296 Md. 670 , 464 A.2d 1028 (1983) (applying Frye - Reed test to hold that expert opinion about hypnotically enhanced witness testimony is inadmissible); U.S. Gypsum Co. v. Mayor and City Council of Baltimore , 336 Md. 145 , 182-83, 647 A.2d 405 (1994) (applying Frye - Reed test to hold that surface dust sampling to determine asbestos contamination

2018See Kelley v. State , 288 Md. 298 , 302, 418 A.2d 217 (1980) (applying Frye - Reed general acceptance test to hold that "testimony which directly or indirectly conveys the results of [a polygraph] test[ ] should not be admitted"); State v. Collins , 296 Md. 670 , 464 A.2d 1028 (1983) (applying Frye - Reed test to hold that expert opinion about hypnotically enhanced witness testimony is inadmissible); U.S. Gypsum Co. v. Mayor and City Council of Baltimore , 336 Md. 145 , 182-83, 647 A.2d 405 (1994) (applying Frye - Reed test to hold that surface dust sampling to determine asbestos contamination

11
Aventis Pasteur, Inc. v. Skevofilaxgreen
md · 2007 · cited in 1 Maryland opinions naming this issue, 2015–2015
11
COLEMAN-FULLER v. Stategreen
mdctspecapp · 2010 · cited in 1 Maryland opinions naming this issue, 2015–2015
11
Ragland v. Stategreen
md · 2005 · cited in 1 Maryland opinions naming this issue, 2009–2009
11
Thompson v. Thompsongreen
md · 1980 · cited in 1 Maryland opinions naming this issue, 1987–1987
11

Distinguished, questioned or overruled (0)

CaseNegativeCited
No negative-treatment citations attached to this issue in Maryland. Read the followed side critically anyway.

Also cited on this issue (38)

CaseCitedYears
Montgomery Mutual Insurance v. Chesson green
md · 2007
2 sentences

2018It held that a Frye - Reed hearing was necessary to determine "whether the medical community generally accepts the theory that mold exposure causes the illnesses that respondents claimed to have suffered, and the propriety of the tests [the expert] employed to reach his medical conclusions." 399 Md. at 328 , 923 A.2d 939 . *709 The expert opinion testimony at issue in Blackwell concerned the general medical causal relationship, if any, between thimerosal, a preservative used in childhood vaccines, and autism.

2018It held that a Frye - Reed hearing was necessary to determine "whether the medical community generally accepts the theory that mold exposure causes the illnesses that respondents claimed to have suffered, and the propriety of the tests [the expert] employed to reach his medical conclusions." 399 Md. at 328 , 923 A.2d 939 . *709 The expert opinion testimony at issue in Blackwell concerned the general medical causal relationship, if any, between thimerosal, a preservative used in childhood vaccines, and autism.

62009–2018
Wilson v. State green
md · 2002
2 sentences

2018Although the general standard of review for admission of expert testimony is discretionary, we recognize that "[a]ppellate review of a trial court's decision regarding admissibility under Frye - Reed is de novo ." Wilson , 370 Md. at 201 n. 5, 803 A.2d 1034 ; accord Savage , 455 Md. at 157 , 166 A.3d 183 .

2018Id. at 180-81 , 166 A.3d 183 . *893 The drift toward applying Frye - Reed to scientific conclusions, not just techniques, was forecast in Wilson v. State , 370 Md. 191 , 803 A.2d 1034 (2002), in which the Court held that an expert opinion based on a statistical rule that was not accepted in the scientific community was not admissible.

32009–2018
Myers v. Celotex Corp. green
mdctspecapp · 1991
2 sentences

2018In other words, the Frye - Reed test applied not only to the expert's own novel diagnostic testing methods but also to the analysis he had employed in concluding that there was a causal relationship between mold exposure and the cluster of symptoms he had dubbed "sick building syndrome." The Court rejected the workers' argument that under Myers , 88 Md.

1999We reasoned that the Frye/Reed test “generally applies to the admissibility of evidence based upon novel scientific techniques or methodologies.” Id. at 458 , 594 A.2d 1248 .

31998–2018
Keene Corp. v. Hall green
mdctspecapp · 1993
2 sentences

2018App. 145 , 664 A.2d 60 (1995) (holding that the Frye - Reed test does apply to horizontal gaze nystagmus field sobriety tests, and taking judicial notice of the general acceptance of those tests); Keene Corp., Inc. v. Hall , 96 Md.

2018App. 644 , 626 A.2d 997 (1993) (applying Frye - Reed test to hold that polarized light microscopy, while generally accepted as a technique *707 to detect asbestos fibers in building materials, is not generally accepted as a technique to detect those fibers in human tissue).

21995–2018
Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. green
scotus · 1993
2 sentences

1999Despite the United States Supreme Court’s enunciation of a more liberal admissibility test in Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 509 U.S. 579 , 113 S.Ct. 2786 , 125 L.Ed.2d 469 (1993), Maryland courts consistently have utilized the Frye/Reed rule of general acceptance within the field. 11 See Schultz v. State, 106 Md.App. 145 , 664 A.2d 60 *498 (1995).

1999Despite the United States Supreme Court’s enunciation of a more liberal admissibility test in Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 509 U.S. 579 , 113 S.Ct. 2786 , 125 L.Ed.2d 469 (1993), Maryland courts consistently have utilized the Frye/Reed rule of general acceptance within the field. 11 See Schultz v. State, 106 Md.App. 145 , 664 A.2d 60 *498 (1995).

21999–2018
State v. Collins green
md · 1983
2 sentences

2018See Kelley v. State , 288 Md. 298 , 302, 418 A.2d 217 (1980) (applying Frye - Reed general acceptance test to hold that "testimony which directly or indirectly conveys the results of [a polygraph] test[ ] should not be admitted"); State v. Collins , 296 Md. 670 , 464 A.2d 1028 (1983) (applying Frye - Reed test to hold that expert opinion about hypnotically enhanced witness testimony is inadmissible); U.S. Gypsum Co. v. Mayor and City Council of Baltimore , 336 Md. 145 , 182-83, 647 A.2d 405 (1994) (applying Frye - Reed test to hold that surface dust sampling to determine asbestos contamination

2018See Kelley v. State , 288 Md. 298 , 302, 418 A.2d 217 (1980) (applying Frye - Reed general acceptance test to hold that "testimony which directly or indirectly conveys the results of [a polygraph] test[ ] should not be admitted"); State v. Collins , 296 Md. 670 , 464 A.2d 1028 (1983) (applying Frye - Reed test to hold that expert opinion about hypnotically enhanced witness testimony is inadmissible); U.S. Gypsum Co. v. Mayor and City Council of Baltimore , 336 Md. 145 , 182-83, 647 A.2d 405 (1994) (applying Frye - Reed test to hold that surface dust sampling to determine asbestos contamination

21999–2018
Armstead v. State green
md · 1996
2 sentences

2005Second, the proponent can prove that the evidence meets the Reed standard of general acceptance in the relevant scientific community.” Armstead v. State, 342 Md. 38, 54 , 673 A.2d 221 (1996) (citations omitted).

2005Second, the proponent can prove that the evidence meets the Reed standard of general acceptance in the relevant scientific community.” Armstead v. State, 342 Md. 38, 54 , 673 A.2d 221 (1996) (citations omitted).

21996–2005
Abruquah v. State green
md · 2023
1 sentence

2024Frederick, (Senior Judge, Specially Assigned), JJ. ______________________________________ Concurring Opinion by Friedman, J. ______________________________________ Filed: May 31, 2024 One aspect that the change from the old Frye/Reed standard to the new Daubert/Rochkind standard was supposed to improve was, in the area of forensic science, that courts would now exclude expert testimony that was generally accepted, but that was not reliable. 1 Regrettably, however, my colleagues in the majority are here accepting so- called police gang expert testimony—law enforcement and corrections officers w

12024–2024
Phillips v. State green
md · 2017
2 sentences

2020In such circumstances, the trial court conducts a Frye-Reed hearing, which is a “pretrial hearing at which the proponent of the scientific evidence must establish such general acceptance if the admissibility of the evidence is challenged.” Phillips v. State, 451 Md. 180 , 184 n.1, 152 A.3d 712 , 714 n.1 (2017).

2020In such circumstances, the trial court conducts a Frye-Reed hearing, which is a “pretrial hearing at which the proponent of the scientific evidence must establish such general acceptance if the admissibility of the evidence is challenged.” Phillips v. State, 451 Md. 180 , 184 n.1, 152 A.3d 712 , 714 n.1 (2017).

12020–2020
In the Matter of Sanderson green
md · 2005
1 sentence

2018App. 123 , 858 A.2d 1025 (2004), cert. granted , 384 Md. 581 , 865 A.2d 589 , cert. dismissed , 387 Md. 351 , 875 A.2d 702 (2005), the judge concluded that the medical causation opinions being offered by the Allens' expert witnesses were not of the type requiring a Frye - Reed analysis.

12018–2018
Rochkind v. Stevenson green
md · 2017
12018–2018
Sissoko v. State neutral
md · 2018
1 sentence

2018App. 676 , 182 A.3d 874 (2018), cert. denied 460 Md. 1 , 188 A.3d 917 (Md.

12018–2018
Motor Vehicle Admin. v. Nelson green
md · 2018
1 sentence

2018App. 676 , 182 A.3d 874 (2018), cert. denied 460 Md. 1 , 188 A.3d 917 (Md.

12018–2018
Sissoko v. State green
mdctspecapp · 2018
12018–2018
CSX Transportation, Inc. v. Miller green
md · 2005
12018–2018
Teel v. State green
md · 2005
12018–2018
Howard v. State neutral
md · 2017
1 sentence

2018Having failed to do so, Howard cannot complain on appeal that the trial court erred by not holding such a hearing"), cert. denied , 453 Md. 366 , 162 A.3d 842 (2017) ; Cobey v. State , 73 Md.

12018–2018
Chesson v. Montgomery Mutual Insurance green
md · 2013
2 sentences

2018As the Court of Appeals has explained, "[g]eneral acceptance [under Frye - Reed ] does not equate to unanimity of opinion within a scientific community, nor universality, and is not subject to a quantum analysis." Chesson II , 434 Md. at 356 , 75 A.3d 932 ; see also U.S. Gypsum v. Baltimore , 336 Md. 145 , 183, 647 A.2d 405 (1994) (holding that without being directed to any information indicating "that the divergence of opinion over the use of [surface dust sampling for asbestos] amounts to the type of 'fundamental division in the scientific community' which necessitates the exclusion of such

2018As the Court of Appeals has explained, "[g]eneral acceptance [under Frye - Reed ] does not equate to unanimity of opinion within a scientific community, nor universality, and is not subject to a quantum analysis." Chesson II , 434 Md. at 356 , 75 A.3d 932 ; see also U.S. Gypsum v. Baltimore , 336 Md. 145 , 183, 647 A.2d 405 (1994) (holding that without being directed to any information indicating "that the divergence of opinion over the use of [surface dust sampling for asbestos] amounts to the type of 'fundamental division in the scientific community' which necessitates the exclusion of such

12018–2018
Gordon v. Epstein neutral
md · 2017
1 sentence

2018Having failed to do so, Howard cannot complain on appeal that the trial court erred by not holding such a hearing"), cert. denied , 453 Md. 366 , 162 A.3d 842 (2017) ; Cobey v. State , 73 Md.

12018–2018
Giddens v. State green
mdctspecapp · 2002
1 sentence

2018App. 407 , 812 A.2d 1075 (2002), cert. denied , 374 Md. 83 , 821 A.2d 370 (2003) (pathologist's expert opinion about victim's time of death was not subject to Frye - Reed test for admissibility).

12018–2018
Addison v. State green
md · 2010
2 sentences

2018No Frye / Reed analysis was requested, or even hinted to, at trial"), cert. denied , 412 Md. 255 , 987 A.2d 16 (2010).

2018No Frye / Reed analysis was requested, or even hinted to, at trial"), cert. denied , 412 Md. 255 , 987 A.2d 16 (2010).

12018–2018
Gazunis v. Foster green
md · 2007
12018–2018
Puhl v. Milwaukee Automobile Insurance green
wis · 1959
2 sentences

2018Co. , 8 Wis.2d 343 , 99 N.W.2d 163 (1959) -clearly would not warrant a Frye - Reed hearing today, or in 1983, when Reed was decided.

2018Co. , 8 Wis.2d 343 , 99 N.W.2d 163 (1959) -clearly would not warrant a Frye - Reed hearing today, or in 1983, when Reed was decided.

12018–2018
Howard v. State green
mdctspecapp · 2017
12018–2018
Roy v. Dackman green
md · 2015
12016–2016
Ross v. Housing Authority green
md · 2013
12015–2015
Wilder v. State green
mdctspecapp · 2010
12015–2015
State v. Payne & Bond green
md · 2014
12015–2015
Montgomery Mutual Insurance v. Chesson green
mdctspecapp · 2012
12013–2013
Clark v. State green
mdctspecapp · 2001
12009–2009
State v. Baby green
md · 2008
12009–2009
Wagner v. State green
mdctspecapp · 2005
12009–2009
N.B.S., Inc. v. Harvey green
mdctspecapp · 1998
11999–1999
Wiggins v. State green
md · 1989
11995–1995
Haines v. Shanholtz green
mdctspecapp · 1984
11995–1995
Wiggins v. State green
mdctspecapp · 1988
11995–1995
People v. Leahy green
cal · 1994
11995–1995
Kalson v. Industrial Commission green
wis · 1946
11975–1975

Where else courts name it

MD 29 (1975–2024) TX 19 (1986–2025) OH 18 (2004–2026) CA 15 (1987–2026) KS 12 (1993–2022) FL 9 (2002–2018) MS 9 (1992–2013) PA 9 (1985–2022) MI 8 (1976–2017) IL 7 (2007–2023) NY 6 (1932–2020) MO 6 (1994–2016) WA 6 (1998–2023) NJ 5 (1988–2025) LA 5 (2002–2023) GA 5 (1978–2026) WI 5 (2018–2023) NV 4 (2014–2021) MN 4 (2008–2014) IA 4 (2000–2019) DE 4 (2018–2024) ND 4 (1981–2009) IN 4 (2007–2020) AZ 4 (2017–2021) VA 3 (2019–2025) UT 2 (2016–2025) ID 2 (2010–2024) SD 2 (2008–2016) CO 2 (1983–2013) AL 2 (2009–2025) TN 2 (1977–1999)

Opinions by the citing court's state. A doctrine retained in one state and abandoned in another shows up here as a year span that stalls.

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