free exercise clause in Pennsylvania

20 Pennsylvania opinions name it 5 courts 1971–2024 3 in the last five years

The cases below were cited by Pennsylvania courts in a sentence that names this issue. Sides come from how each citing opinion treated the case (Syfertize flag on that citation), so a case can appear on both: that is where the law is contested. A red or yellow chip is the case's own overall treatment.

Followed or applied (15)

Case	Followed	Cited
Shepp v. Sheppgreen pa · 2006 · cited in 5 Pennsylvania opinions naming this issue, 2015–2022 2 sentences 2022See Shepp v. Shepp, 906 A.2d 1165, 1172 (Pa. 2006) (citing Employment Div. Dep’t of Human Res. of Oregon v. Smith, 494 U.S. 872, 882 (1990) (reaffirming a higher level of scrutiny for cases involving a free exercise claim made in conjunction with our constitutional protections, such as the right of a parent to direct the upbringing and education of the child). 2021Id. at 1172 (citing Employment Div. Dep’t of Human Res. of Oregon v. Smith, 494 U.S. 872 , 881 n.1, 882 (1990) (reaffirming a higher level of scrutiny for cases involving a free exercise claim made in conjunction with other constitutional protections, such as the right of a parent to direct the upbringing and education of his child)).	3	5
Employment Div., Dept. of Human Resources of Ore. v. Smithred scotus · 1990 · cited in 4 Pennsylvania opinions naming this issue, 2006–2022 2 sentences 2022See Shepp v. Shepp, 906 A.2d 1165, 1172 (Pa. 2006) (citing Employment Div. Dep’t of Human Res. of Oregon v. Smith, 494 U.S. 872, 882 (1990) (reaffirming a higher level of scrutiny for cases involving a free exercise claim made in conjunction with our constitutional protections, such as the right of a parent to direct the upbringing and education of the child). 2021Id. at 1172 (citing Employment Div. Dep’t of Human Res. of Oregon v. Smith, 494 U.S. 872 , 881 n.1, 882 (1990) (reaffirming a higher level of scrutiny for cases involving a free exercise claim made in conjunction with other constitutional protections, such as the right of a parent to direct the upbringing and education of his child)).	2	4
Cantwell v. Connecticutgreen scotus · 1940 · cited in 2 Pennsylvania opinions naming this issue, 1972–1974 2 sentences 1974Cantwell v. Connecticut, 310 U.S. 296 (1940). 1974Cantwell v. Connecticut, 310 U.S. 296 (1940).	1	2
Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Assn.green scotus · 1988 · cited in 1 Pennsylvania opinions naming this issue, 2024–2024 2 sentences 2024See Lee [v. Weisman], 505 U.S. [577,] 621 . . . [(1992)] (a Free Exercise Clause violation is predicated on coercion); see also Lyng v. [Nw.] Indian Cemetery Protective Ass’n, 485 U.S. 439 , 447-[]51 . . . (1988); Bowen v. Roy, 476 U.S. 693 , 704-[]05 . . . (1986); . . . 2024See Lee [v. Weisman], 505 U.S. [577,] 621 . . . [(1992)] (a Free Exercise Clause violation is predicated on coercion); see also Lyng v. [Nw.] Indian Cemetery Protective Ass’n, 485 U.S. 439 , 447-[]51 . . . (1988); Bowen v. Roy, 476 U.S. 693 , 704-[]05 . . . (1986); . . .	1	1
Christian School Ass'n v. Commonwealth, Department of Labor & Industrygreen pacommwct · 1980 · cited in 1 Pennsylvania opinions naming this issue, 2012–2012 2 sentences 2012Id. at 1347. 2012Id. at 1347.	1	1
Wilson v. Wilsongreen wyo · 1970 · cited in 1 Pennsylvania opinions naming this issue, 1990–1990 2 sentences 1990It places the authority, influence, support and power of the government on the side of organized reli gion, a non-secular result that the establishment clause is designed to prevent. 103 Ill.Dec. at 564 , 501 N.E.2d at 881 ; see also Gould v. Gould, 116 Wis.2d 493 , 342 N.W.2d 426, 432-33 (1984); Bonjour v. Bonjour, 592 P.2d 1233, 1243 (Alaska 1979); Wilson v. Wilson, 473 P.2d 595, 599 (Wyo.1970); Welker v. Welker, 24 Wis.2d 570 , 129 N.W.2d 134, 136-38 (1964); Kendell v. Kendell, 233 S.W. 296, 298 (Tex. 1921); Note, supra, 82 Mich.L.Rev. at 1703-27 & nn. 8-84 (detailing various ways in which 1990It places the authority, influence, support and power of the government on the side of organized religion, *74 a non-secular result that the establishment clause is designed to prevent. 103 Ill.Dec. at 564 , 501 N.E.2d at 881 ; see also Gould v. Gould, 116 Wis.2d 493 , 342 N.W.2d 426, 432-33 (1984); Bonjour v. Bonjour, 592 P.2d 1233, 1243 (Alaska 1979); Wilson v. Wilson, 473 P.2d 595, 599 (Wyo. 1970); Welker v. Welker, 24 Wis.2d 570 , 129 N.W.2d 134, 136-38 (1964); Kendell v. Kendell, 233 S.W. 296, 298 (Tex. 1921); Note, supra, 82 Mich.L.Rev. at 1703-27 & nn. 8-84 (detailing various ways in wh	1	1
Bonjour v. Bonjourgreen alaska · 1979 · cited in 1 Pennsylvania opinions naming this issue, 1990–1990 2 sentences 1990It places the authority, influence, support and power of the government on the side of organized reli gion, a non-secular result that the establishment clause is designed to prevent. 103 Ill.Dec. at 564 , 501 N.E.2d at 881 ; see also Gould v. Gould, 116 Wis.2d 493 , 342 N.W.2d 426, 432-33 (1984); Bonjour v. Bonjour, 592 P.2d 1233, 1243 (Alaska 1979); Wilson v. Wilson, 473 P.2d 595, 599 (Wyo.1970); Welker v. Welker, 24 Wis.2d 570 , 129 N.W.2d 134, 136-38 (1964); Kendell v. Kendell, 233 S.W. 296, 298 (Tex. 1921); Note, supra, 82 Mich.L.Rev. at 1703-27 & nn. 8-84 (detailing various ways in which 1990It places the authority, influence, support and power of the government on the side of organized religion, *74 a non-secular result that the establishment clause is designed to prevent. 103 Ill.Dec. at 564 , 501 N.E.2d at 881 ; see also Gould v. Gould, 116 Wis.2d 493 , 342 N.W.2d 426, 432-33 (1984); Bonjour v. Bonjour, 592 P.2d 1233, 1243 (Alaska 1979); Wilson v. Wilson, 473 P.2d 595, 599 (Wyo. 1970); Welker v. Welker, 24 Wis.2d 570 , 129 N.W.2d 134, 136-38 (1964); Kendell v. Kendell, 233 S.W. 296, 298 (Tex. 1921); Note, supra, 82 Mich.L.Rev. at 1703-27 & nn. 8-84 (detailing various ways in wh	1	1
Welker v. Welkergreen wis · 1964 · cited in 1 Pennsylvania opinions naming this issue, 1990–1990 2 sentences 1990It places the authority, influence, support and power of the government on the side of organized religion, 74 a non-secular result that the establishment clause is designed to prevent. 103 Ill.Dec. at 564 , 501 N.E.2d at 881 ; see also Gould v. Gould, 116 Wis.2d 493 , 342 N.W.2d 426, 432-33 (1984); Bonjour v. Bonjour, 592 P.2d 1233, 1243 (Alaska 1979); Wilson v. Wilson, 473 P.2d 595, 599 (Wyo. 1970); Welker v. Welker, 24 Wis.2d 570 , 129 N.W.2d 134, 136-38 (1964); Kendell v. Kendell, 233 S.W. 296, 298 (Tex. 1921); Note, supra, 82 Mich.L.Rev. at 1703-27 & nn. 8-84 (detailing various ways in wh 1990It places the authority, influence, support and power of the government on the side of organized religion, 74 a non-secular result that the establishment clause is designed to prevent. 103 Ill.Dec. at 564 , 501 N.E.2d at 881 ; see also Gould v. Gould, 116 Wis.2d 493 , 342 N.W.2d 426, 432-33 (1984); Bonjour v. Bonjour, 592 P.2d 1233, 1243 (Alaska 1979); Wilson v. Wilson, 473 P.2d 595, 599 (Wyo. 1970); Welker v. Welker, 24 Wis.2d 570 , 129 N.W.2d 134, 136-38 (1964); Kendell v. Kendell, 233 S.W. 296, 298 (Tex. 1921); Note, supra, 82 Mich.L.Rev. at 1703-27 & nn. 8-84 (detailing various ways in wh	1	1
In RE MARRIAGE OF GOULD v. Gouldgreen wis · 1984 · cited in 1 Pennsylvania opinions naming this issue, 1990–1990 2 sentences 1990It places the authority, influence, support and power of the government on the side of organized religion, 74 a non-secular result that the establishment clause is designed to prevent. 103 Ill.Dec. at 564 , 501 N.E.2d at 881 ; see also Gould v. Gould, 116 Wis.2d 493 , 342 N.W.2d 426, 432-33 (1984); Bonjour v. Bonjour, 592 P.2d 1233, 1243 (Alaska 1979); Wilson v. Wilson, 473 P.2d 595, 599 (Wyo. 1970); Welker v. Welker, 24 Wis.2d 570 , 129 N.W.2d 134, 136-38 (1964); Kendell v. Kendell, 233 S.W. 296, 298 (Tex. 1921); Note, supra, 82 Mich.L.Rev. at 1703-27 & nn. 8-84 (detailing various ways in wh 1990It places the authority, influence, support and power of the government on the side of organized religion, 74 a non-secular result that the establishment clause is designed to prevent. 103 Ill.Dec. at 564 , 501 N.E.2d at 881 ; see also Gould v. Gould, 116 Wis.2d 493 , 342 N.W.2d 426, 432-33 (1984); Bonjour v. Bonjour, 592 P.2d 1233, 1243 (Alaska 1979); Wilson v. Wilson, 473 P.2d 595, 599 (Wyo. 1970); Welker v. Welker, 24 Wis.2d 570 , 129 N.W.2d 134, 136-38 (1964); Kendell v. Kendell, 233 S.W. 296, 298 (Tex. 1921); Note, supra, 82 Mich.L.Rev. at 1703-27 & nn. 8-84 (detailing various ways in wh	1	1
Kendall v. Williamsgreen texapp · 1921 · cited in 1 Pennsylvania opinions naming this issue, 1990–1990 2 sentences 1990It places the authority, influence, support and power of the government on the side of organized reli gion, a non-secular result that the establishment clause is designed to prevent. 103 Ill.Dec. at 564 , 501 N.E.2d at 881 ; see also Gould v. Gould, 116 Wis.2d 493 , 342 N.W.2d 426, 432-33 (1984); Bonjour v. Bonjour, 592 P.2d 1233, 1243 (Alaska 1979); Wilson v. Wilson, 473 P.2d 595, 599 (Wyo.1970); Welker v. Welker, 24 Wis.2d 570 , 129 N.W.2d 134, 136-38 (1964); Kendell v. Kendell, 233 S.W. 296, 298 (Tex. 1921); Note, supra, 82 Mich.L.Rev. at 1703-27 & nn. 8-84 (detailing various ways in which 1990It places the authority, influence, support and power of the government on the side of organized religion, *74 a non-secular result that the establishment clause is designed to prevent. 103 Ill.Dec. at 564 , 501 N.E.2d at 881 ; see also Gould v. Gould, 116 Wis.2d 493 , 342 N.W.2d 426, 432-33 (1984); Bonjour v. Bonjour, 592 P.2d 1233, 1243 (Alaska 1979); Wilson v. Wilson, 473 P.2d 595, 599 (Wyo. 1970); Welker v. Welker, 24 Wis.2d 570 , 129 N.W.2d 134, 136-38 (1964); Kendell v. Kendell, 233 S.W. 296, 298 (Tex. 1921); Note, supra, 82 Mich.L.Rev. at 1703-27 & nn. 8-84 (detailing various ways in wh	1	1
Mrs. Billie B. McCLURE, Plaintiff-Appellant, v. the SALVATION ARMY, Defendant-Appelleegreen ca5 · 1972 · cited in 1 Pennsylvania opinions naming this issue, 1987–1987 1 sentence 1987Such “an encroachment by the state into an area of religious freedom ... is forbidden ... by the principles of the free exercise clause of the First Amendment.” McClure v. Salvation Army, 460 F.2d 553, 560 (5th Cir.), cert. denied, 409 U.S. 896 (1972).	1	1
Engel v. Vitalegreen scotus · 1962 · cited in 1 Pennsylvania opinions naming this issue, 1974–1974 2 sentences 1974This point was aptly stated by the United States Supreme Court in Engel v. Vitale, 370 U.S. 421, 430 (1962): "Although these two clauses may in certain instances overlap, they forbid two quite different kinds of governmental encroachment upon religious freedom. 1974This point was aptly stated by the United States Supreme Court in Engel v. Vitale, 370 U.S. 421, 430 (1962): “Although these two clauses may in certain instances overlap, they forbid two quite different kinds of governmental encroachment upon religious freedom.	1	1
Roe v. Wadered scotus · 1973 · cited in 1 Pennsylvania opinions naming this issue, 1974–1974 1 sentence 1974See, e.g., Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973). [2] The fourteenth amendment incorporates the protection of the free exercise clause and the establishment clause to render the legislatures of states as incompetent as Congress to make laws respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.	1	1
Reynolds v. United Statesgreen scotus · 1879 · cited in 1 Pennsylvania opinions naming this issue, 1972–1972 2 sentences 1972Almost a century ago, the United States Supreme Court enunciated the twofold concept of the Free Exercise clause: “Laws are made for the government of actions, and while they cannot interfere with mere religious belief and opinions, they may with practices.” Reynolds v. United States, 98 U.S. 145, 166 (1878). 1972Almost a century ago, the United States Supreme Court enunciated the twofold concept of the Free Exercise clause: “Laws are made for the government of actions, and while they cannot interfere with mere religious belief and opinions, they may with practices.” Reynolds v. United States, 98 U.S. 145, 166 (1878).	1	1
Braunfeld v. Browngreen scotus · 1961 · cited in 1 Pennsylvania opinions naming this issue, 1972–1972 1 sentence 1972Accord, Braunfeld v. Brown, 366 U.S. 599 (1961); Cantwell v. Connecticut, 310 U.S. 296, 303-04 (1940); Davis v. Beason, 133 U.S. 333 (1890).	1	1

Distinguished, questioned or overruled (0)

Case	Negative	Cited
No negative-treatment citations attached to this issue in Pennsylvania. Read the followed side critically anyway.

Also cited on this issue (14)

Case	Cited	Years
Wisconsin v. Yoder green scotus · 1972 2 sentences 2021Thus, “[t]he power of the parent, even when linked to a free exercise claim, may be subject to limitation ... if it appears that parental decisions will jeopardize the health or safety of the child, or have a potential for significant social burdens.” Id. at 1173 (citing Wisconsin v. Yoder, 406 U.S. 205 (1972) - 21 - J-A01042-21 (holding that a court may prohibit a parent from advocating religious beliefs, which, if acted, upon, would constitute a crime, but only if it is established that doing so would jeopardize the physical or mental health or safety of the child)). 2018Thus, "[t]he power of the parent, even when linked to a free exercise claim, may be subject to limitation ... if it appears that parental decisions will jeopardize the health or safety of the child, or have a potential for significant social burdens." Shepp v. Shepp , 588 Pa. 691 , 906 A.2d 1165 , 1173 (Pa. 2006) (citing Wisconsin v. Yoder , 406 U.S. 205 , 233-34, 92 S.Ct. 1526 , 32 L.Ed.2d 15 (1972) ).	6	1972–2021
Prince v. Massachusetts green scotus · 1944 2 sentences 2006However, this does not end our inquiry because Yoder also provides: To be sure, the power of the parent, even when linked to a free exercise claim, may be subject to limitation under Prince [v. Massachusetts, 321 U.S. 158 , 64 S.Ct. 438 , 88 L.Ed. 645 (1944),] if it appears that parental decisions will jeopardize the health or safety of the child, or have a potential for significant social burdens. 2006However, this does not end our inquiry because Yoder also provides: To be sure, the power of the parent, even when linked to a free exercise claim, may be subject to limitation under Prince [v. Massachusetts, 321 U.S. 158 , 64 S.Ct. 438 , 88 L.Ed. 645 (1944),] if it appears that parental decisions will jeopardize the health or safety of the child, or have a potential for significant social burdens.	3	1971–2006
United States v. Lee green scotus · 1982 2 sentences 1999With regard to whether the requirement that individuals participate in the social security system violates the free exercise clause of the First Amendment of the United States Constitution, the United States Supreme Court in United States v. Lee, 455 U.S. 252 , 102 S.Ct. 1051 , 71 L.Ed.2d 127 , (1982) held that requiring participation was not unconstitutional. 1999With regard to whether the requirement that individuals participate in the social security system violates the free exercise clause of the First Amendment of the United States Constitution, the United States Supreme Court in United States v. Lee, 455 U.S. 252 , 102 S.Ct. 1051 , 71 L.Ed.2d 127 , (1982) held that requiring participation was not unconstitutional.	2	1986–1999
Bowen v. Roy green scotus · 1986 2 sentences 2024See Lee [v. Weisman], 505 U.S. [577,] 621 . . . [(1992)] (a Free Exercise Clause violation is predicated on coercion); see also Lyng v. [Nw.] Indian Cemetery Protective Ass’n, 485 U.S. 439 , 447-[]51 . . . (1988); Bowen v. Roy, 476 U.S. 693 , 704-[]05 . . . (1986); . . . 2024See Lee [v. Weisman], 505 U.S. [577,] 621 . . . [(1992)] (a Free Exercise Clause violation is predicated on coercion); see also Lyng v. [Nw.] Indian Cemetery Protective Ass’n, 485 U.S. 439 , 447-[]51 . . . (1988); Bowen v. Roy, 476 U.S. 693 , 704-[]05 . . . (1986); . . .	1	2024–2024
Sable Communications of California, Inc. v. Federal Communications Commission green scotus · 1989 1 sentence 2021Thus, “[t]he power of the parent, even when linked to a free exercise claim, may be subject to limitation ... if it appears that parental decisions will jeopardize the health or safety of the child, or have a potential for significant social burdens.” Id. at 1173 (citing Wisconsin v. Yoder, 406 U.S. 205 (1972) - 21 - J-A01042-21 (holding that a court may prohibit a parent from advocating religious beliefs, which, if acted, upon, would constitute a crime, but only if it is established that doing so would jeopardize the physical or mental health or safety of the child)).	1	2021–2021
Ward v. Rock Against Racism green scotus · 1989 1 sentence 2020The court further reasoned that the “power of the parent, even when linked to a free exercise clause claim, may be subject to limitation . . . if it appears that parental decisions will jeopardize the health or safety of the child, or have a potential for significant social burdens.” Id. (citing Shepp v. Shepp, 906 A.2d 1165, 1173 (Pa. 2006) (internal citation omitted)).7 Reiterating the trial court’s findings that the allegations of sexual abuse by Father were unsubstantiated and that Child suffered emotional trauma from the “strife between the parents,” the Superior Court concluded that the	1	2020–2020
Jimmy Swaggart Ministries v. Board of Equalization of California green scotus · 1990 2 sentences 1997Id. (emphasis in original). 1997Id. (emphasis in original).	1	1997–1997
Bender v. Williamsport Area School District green pamd · 1983 1 sentence 1991Bender v. Williamsport Area School District, 563 F.Supp. 697 (1983).	1	1991–1991
In Re Marriage of Zucco green illappct · 1986 2 sentences 1990It places the authority, influence, support and power of the government on the side of organized religion, 74 a non-secular result that the establishment clause is designed to prevent. 103 Ill.Dec. at 564 , 501 N.E.2d at 881 ; see also Gould v. Gould, 116 Wis.2d 493 , 342 N.W.2d 426, 432-33 (1984); Bonjour v. Bonjour, 592 P.2d 1233, 1243 (Alaska 1979); Wilson v. Wilson, 473 P.2d 595, 599 (Wyo. 1970); Welker v. Welker, 24 Wis.2d 570 , 129 N.W.2d 134, 136-38 (1964); Kendell v. Kendell, 233 S.W. 296, 298 (Tex. 1921); Note, supra, 82 Mich.L.Rev. at 1703-27 & nn. 8-84 (detailing various ways in wh 1990It places the authority, influence, support and power of the government on the side of organized religion, 74 a non-secular result that the establishment clause is designed to prevent. 103 Ill.Dec. at 564 , 501 N.E.2d at 881 ; see also Gould v. Gould, 116 Wis.2d 493 , 342 N.W.2d 426, 432-33 (1984); Bonjour v. Bonjour, 592 P.2d 1233, 1243 (Alaska 1979); Wilson v. Wilson, 473 P.2d 595, 599 (Wyo. 1970); Welker v. Welker, 24 Wis.2d 570 , 129 N.W.2d 134, 136-38 (1964); Kendell v. Kendell, 233 S.W. 296, 298 (Tex. 1921); Note, supra, 82 Mich.L.Rev. at 1703-27 & nn. 8-84 (detailing various ways in wh	1	1990–1990
Murdock v. Pennsylvania green scotus · 1943 2 sentences 1988In Murdock v. Pennsylvania, 319 U.S. 105 , 63 S.Ct. 870 , 87 L.Ed. 1292 (1943), the U.S. Supreme Court struck down a license tax on the privilege of soliciting within a municipality, when applied to religious colporteurs disseminating religious beliefs through the sale of books and pamphlets from house to house, as an infringement on the freedom of religion. 1988In Murdock v. Pennsylvania, 319 U.S. 105 , 63 S.Ct. 870 , 87 L.Ed. 1292 (1943), the U.S. Supreme Court struck down a license tax on the privilege of soliciting within a municipality, when applied to religious colporteurs disseminating religious beliefs through the sale of books and pamphlets from house to house, as an infringement on the freedom of religion.	1	1988–1988
Morningstar v. United States green scotus · 1972 1 sentence 1987Such “an encroachment by the state into an area of religious freedom ... is forbidden ... by the principles of the free exercise clause of the First Amendment.” McClure v. Salvation Army, 460 F.2d 553, 560 (5th Cir.), cert. denied, 409 U.S. 896 (1972).	1	1987–1987
Bob Jones University v. United States green scotus · 1983 1 sentence 1986Bob Jones University v. United States, 461 U.S. 574 (1983); United States v. Lee, 455 U.S. 252 (1982).	1	1986–1986
Davis v. Beason red · 1890 1 sentence 1972Accord, Braunfeld v. Brown, 366 U.S. 599 (1961); Cantwell v. Connecticut, 310 U.S. 296, 303-04 (1940); Davis v. Beason, 133 U.S. 333 (1890).	1	1972–1972
Erdman v. Mitchell green · 1903 1 sentence 1972We think it helpful to quote from his opinion at page 83: “It appears both points can be answered by quoting from the Pennsylvania Supreme Court in Erdman v. Mitchell, 207 Pa. 79 , where the court said: ‘Common law recognizes the right to protection from the concentrated act of a group designed to prohibit the free exercise of the privilege of working for such employer as he chooses at such wages as he chooses to accept.’ We see no reason why this principle should not be extended to include ‘And for such hours as the parties may agree.’ ” As we have said, if the facts alleged in the complaint	1	1972–1972

Where else courts name it

CA 57 (1961–2026) WA 36 (1973–2026) IL 32 (1984–2026) TX 32 (1975–2026) MA 24 (1980–2025) PA 20 (1971–2024) NY 19 (1974–2025) MI 17 (1982–2020) WI 17 (1971–2024) VA 16 (1996–2026) NJ 14 (1974–2025) CT 13 (1983–2024) MN 13 (1985–2008) OR 11 (1982–2022) CO 11 (1980–2015) AZ 9 (1981–2023) IN 8 (1979–2010) FL 8 (1994–2007) MD 7 (1979–2011) TN 7 (1985–2013) DC 7 (1984–2005) ID 7 (1987–2018) MT 6 (1986–2024) OH 6 (1976–2025) UT 6 (1998–2013) HI 6 (1970–2009) IA 6 (1981–2012) ND 6 (1970–1988) NE 6 (1982–2026) NM 6 (1979–2013) AK 6 (1979–2015) VT 5 (1982–2005) KS 5 (1980–2020) AR 4 (1984–2001) MS 4 (2002–2005) MO 4 (1976–2022) OK 3 (1980–1994) WV 3 (1981–2025) DE 3 (1974–2023) SD 3 (1980–1999) NV 3 (2017–2021) ME 2 (1999–2005) AL 2 (1987–1989) NC 2 (1918–2007)

Opinions by the citing court's state. A doctrine retained in one state and abandoned in another shows up here as a year span that stalls.

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