indemnification clause (New Jersey) · Go Syfert
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indemnification clause in New Jersey

42 New Jersey opinions name it 2 courts 1960–2026 7 in the last five years

The cases below were cited by New Jersey courts in a sentence that names this issue. Sides come from how each citing opinion treated the case (Syfertize flag on that citation), so a case can appear on both: that is where the law is contested. A red or yellow chip is the case's own overall treatment.

Followed or applied (18)

CaseFollowedCited
Ramos v. Browning Ferris Industries of South Jersey, Inc.green
nj · 1986 · cited in 7 New Jersey opinions naming this issue, 1987–2013
2 sentences

2013The Appellate Division in Ramos v. Browning Ferris Industries of South Jersey, Inc., 194 N.J.Super. 96, 106 , 476 A.2d 304 (App.Div.1984), rev’d on other grounds, 103 N.J. 177 , 510 A.2d 1152 (1986), and this Court in Ramos, supra, 103 N.J. at 181 , 510 A.2d 1152 , rejected an indemnification claim by the plaintiffs supplier of workplace equipment against its employer.

2013The Appellate Division in Ramos v. Browning Ferris Industries of South Jersey, Inc., 194 N.J.Super. 96, 106 , 476 A.2d 304 (App.Div.1984), rev’d on other grounds, 103 N.J. 177 , 510 A.2d 1152 (1986), and this Court in Ramos, supra, 103 N.J. at 181 , 510 A.2d 1152 , rejected an indemnification claim by the plaintiffs supplier of workplace equipment against its employer.

27
Mantilla v. NC Mall Associatesgreen
nj · 2001 · cited in 4 New Jersey opinions naming this issue, 2013–2021
2 sentences

2021Construing this indemnification clause narrowly against Lipowski, see Kieffer, 205 N.J. at 223 , it does not unequivocally indemnify Lipowski for its defense of claims resulting from its own negligence, see, e.g., Mantilla, 167 N.J. at 267, 275 (finding a contract that indemnified a party "from and against any and all claims . . . caused by or arising from the negligence of [the indemnitor]" did not explicitly indemnify that party from costs of defending against claims of its own negligence).

2021Construing this indemnification clause narrowly against Lipowski, see Kieffer, 205 N.J. at 223 , it does not unequivocally indemnify Lipowski for its defense of claims resulting from its own negligence, see, e.g., Mantilla, 167 N.J. at 267, 275 (finding a contract that indemnified a party "from and against any and all claims . . . caused by or arising from the negligence of [the indemnitor]" did not explicitly indemnify that party from costs of defending against claims of its own negligence).

24
Kieffer v. Best Buygreen
nj · 2011 · cited in 4 New Jersey opinions naming this issue, 2018–2021
2 sentences

2021Construing this indemnification clause narrowly against Lipowski, see Kieffer, 205 N.J. at 223 , it does not unequivocally indemnify Lipowski for its defense of claims resulting from its own negligence, see, e.g., Mantilla, 167 N.J. at 267, 275 (finding a contract that indemnified a party "from and against any and all claims . . . caused by or arising from the negligence of [the indemnitor]" did not explicitly indemnify that party from costs of defending against claims of its own negligence).

2021Construing this indemnification clause narrowly against Lipowski, see Kieffer, 205 N.J. at 223 , it does not unequivocally indemnify Lipowski for its defense of claims resulting from its own negligence, see, e.g., Mantilla, 167 N.J. at 267, 275 (finding a contract that indemnified a party "from and against any and all claims . . . caused by or arising from the negligence of [the indemnitor]" did not explicitly indemnify that party from costs of defending against claims of its own negligence).

14
Stern v. Laroccagreen
njsuperctappdiv · 1958 · cited in 2 New Jersey opinions naming this issue, 1960–1960
2 sentences

1960Stern v. Larocca, supra , is in agreement with the philosophy that "an indemnification clause will not cover the indemnitee in respect to a claim against it arising out of its own negligence unless the contract contains a clear and unequivocal expression of such intent. [cases cited]" 49 N.J.

1960Stern v. Larocca, supra , is in agreement with the philosophy that "an indemnification clause will not cover the indemnitee in respect to a claim against it arising out of its own negligence unless the contract contains a clear and unequivocal expression of such intent. [cases cited]" 49 N.J.

12
County of Monmouth v. Hiltongreen
njsuperctappdiv · 2000 · cited in 1 New Jersey opinions naming this issue, 2019–2019
1 sentence

2019For example, in Kimball we determined that the plaintiff's indemnification claim had been properly assigned because "[i]ndemnity arises from contract, express or implied," id. at 613 (alteration in original) (quoting George M.

11
Kimball Intern. v. Northfield Metalgreen
njsuperctappdiv · 2000 · cited in 1 New Jersey opinions naming this issue, 2019–2019
1 sentence

2019For example, in Kimball we determined that the plaintiff's indemnification claim had been properly assigned because "[i]ndemnity arises from contract, express or implied," id. at 613 (alteration in original) (quoting George M.

11
Hardy Ex Rel. Dowdell v. Abdul-Matingreen
nj · 2009 · cited in 1 New Jersey opinions naming this issue, 2017–2017
1 sentence

2017Dowdell v. Abdul-Matin, 198 N.J. 95, 103 (2009). 9 A-5144-14T2 rel.

11
Mettinger v. Globe Slicing MacH. Co., Inc.green
nj · 1998 · cited in 1 New Jersey opinions naming this issue, 2017–2017
1 sentence

2017Co., 153 N.J. 371, 387 (1998), (citation omitted).

11
Barker v. Brinegargreen
njsuperctappdiv · 2002 · cited in 1 New Jersey opinions naming this issue, 2002–2002
2 sentences

2002However, these cases contain conflicting suggestions as to the proper interpretation of the indemnification clause in issue and, in any event, application of the collateral estoppel doctrine is discretionary and "must be applied equitably, not mechanically." Pivnick v. Beck, 326 N.J.Super. 474, 485 , 741 A. 2d 655 (App.Div.1999) aff'd o.b., 165 N.J. 670 , 762 A. 2d 653 (2000) (quoting In re Tanelli, 194 N.J.Super. 492, 497 , 477 A. 2d 394 (App.Div.), certif. denied, 99 N.J. 181 , 491 A. 2d 686 (1984)); see also Barker v. Brinegar, 346 N.J.Super. 558, 567 , 788 A. 2d 834 (App.Div.2002).

2002However, these cases contain conflicting suggestions as to the proper interpretation of the indemnification clause in issue and, in any event, application of the collateral estoppel doctrine is discretionary and "must be applied equitably, not mechanically." Pivnick v. Beck, 326 N.J.Super. 474, 485 , 741 A. 2d 655 (App.Div.1999) aff'd o.b., 165 N.J. 670 , 762 A. 2d 653 (2000) (quoting In re Tanelli, 194 N.J.Super. 492, 497 , 477 A. 2d 394 (App.Div.), certif. denied, 99 N.J. 181 , 491 A. 2d 686 (1984)); see also Barker v. Brinegar, 346 N.J.Super. 558, 567 , 788 A. 2d 834 (App.Div.2002).

11
Harley Davidson Motor Co., Inc. v. ADV. DIE CASTING, INC.green
nj · 1997 · cited in 1 New Jersey opinions naming this issue, 2000–2000
2 sentences

2000See Harley Davidson Motor Co. v. Advance Die Casting, Inc., 150 N.J. 489, 497-98 , 696 A. 2d 666 (1997).

2000See Harley Davidson Motor Co. v. Advance Die Casting, Inc., 150 N.J. 489, 497-98 , 696 A. 2d 666 (1997).

11
Bower v. Bd. of Educ. of East Orangegreen
nj · 1997 · cited in 1 New Jersey opinions naming this issue, 1997–1997
1 sentence

1997Thus, the inference is compelling that Bower's indictment was premised on acts arising out of and directly related to the lawful exercise of his official duties. [ Ante at 431, 694 A. 2d at 551 (emphasis added).] The majority, in effect, holds that dismissal of the criminal charges alone is sufficient to satisfy both prongs of the indemnification test.

11
Cohen v. Fair Lawn Dairies, Inc.green
nj · 1965 · cited in 1 New Jersey opinions naming this issue, 1995–1995
2 sentences

1995See Cohen, supra, 44 N.J. at 452 , 210 A. 2d 73 . [7] Accordingly, we remand to the trial judge consideration of all the issues regarding attorneys' fees and costs for which TMUA and Kupper are entitled under the indemnification clause.

1995See Cohen, supra, 44 N.J. at 452 , 210 A. 2d 73 . [7] Accordingly, we remand to the trial judge consideration of all the issues regarding attorneys' fees and costs for which TMUA and Kupper are entitled under the indemnification clause.

11
Echevarias v. Lopezgreen
njsuperctappdiv · 1990 · cited in 1 New Jersey opinions naming this issue, 1991–1991
11
Sisler v. Gannett Co., Inc.green
njsuperctappdiv · 1987 · cited in 1 New Jersey opinions naming this issue, 1989–1989
11
Halifko v. Cities Service Oil Co.green
njd · 1981 · cited in 1 New Jersey opinions naming this issue, 1988–1988
11
Delucia, Appeal Ofgreen
ca3 · 1982 · cited in 1 New Jersey opinions naming this issue, 1988–1988
11
Antenucci v. Mr. Nick's Mens Sportsweargreen
njsuperctappdiv · 1986 · cited in 1 New Jersey opinions naming this issue, 1988–1988
11
Adler's Quality Bakery, Inc. v. Gaseteria, Inc.green
nj · 1960 · cited in 1 New Jersey opinions naming this issue, 1987–1987
11

Distinguished, questioned or overruled (0)

CaseNegativeCited
No negative-treatment citations attached to this issue in New Jersey. Read the followed side critically anyway.

Also cited on this issue (26)

CaseCitedYears
Englert v. the Home Depot green
njsuperctappdiv · 2006
2 sentences

2025Lastly, the language of the indemnification clause in Englert v. The Home Depot, 389 N.J.

2020Id. at 48 .

22020–2025
New Gold Equities Corp. v. Jaffe Spindler Co. green
njsuperctappdiv · 2018
2 sentences

2021Because the indemnification clause does not unequivocally indemnify Lipowski for the defense of claims for its own negligence, the Central Motor default rule applies, New Gold Equities, 453 N.J.

2021Because the indemnification clause does not unequivocally indemnify Lipowski for the defense of claims for its own negligence, the Central Motor default rule applies, New Gold Equities, 453 N.J.

22021–2021
Ramos v. Browning Ferris Ind. of So. Jersey, Inc. green
njsuperctappdiv · 1984
2 sentences

2013The Appellate Division in Ramos v. Browning Ferris Industries of South Jersey, Inc., 194 N.J.Super. 96, 106 , 476 A.2d 304 (App.Div.1984), rev’d on other grounds, 103 N.J. 177 , 510 A.2d 1152 (1986), and this Court in Ramos, supra, 103 N.J. at 181 , 510 A.2d 1152 , rejected an indemnification claim by the plaintiffs supplier of workplace equipment against its employer.

2013The Appellate Division in Ramos v. Browning Ferris Industries of South Jersey, Inc., 194 N.J.Super. 96, 106 , 476 A.2d 304 (App.Div.1984), rev’d on other grounds, 103 N.J. 177 , 510 A.2d 1152 (1986), and this Court in Ramos, supra, 103 N.J. at 181 , 510 A.2d 1152 , rejected an indemnification claim by the plaintiffs supplier of workplace equipment against its employer.

21986–2013
Maryland Casualty Co. v. New Jersey Manufacturers (Casualty) Insurance green
· 1958
1 sentence

2026We determined, under those circumstances, that the employer's insurer should be permitted to assert an indemnification claim, based on its right to subrogation, against the employee's insurer to prevent "circuity of action." Id. at 328 .

12026–2026
Bethlehem Steel Corp. v. KLO WELD. ERECTORS, INC. green
njsuperctappdiv · 1975
1 sentence

2025In awarding attorneys' fees under the contract, the trial court found the indemnification clause here similar to the one in Bethlehem Steel, 132 N.J.

12025–2025
In Re Six Month Extension of NJAC green
njsuperctappdiv · 2004
1 sentence

2022Ibid.

12022–2022
Westfall v. Whittaker, Clark & Daniels, Metropolitan Talc Co. green
rid · 1983
1 sentence

2021The court 12 Downey testified that in Westfall v. Whittaker, Clark & Daniels, 571 F. Supp. 304 (D.R.I. 1983), a case filed in 1979, the plaintiff claimed he contracted mesothelioma from inhaling asbestos-contaminated talc while working.

12021–2021
Pivnick v. Beck green
nj · 2000
2 sentences

2002However, these cases contain conflicting suggestions as to the proper interpretation of the indemnification clause in issue and, in any event, application of the collateral estoppel doctrine is discretionary and "must be applied equitably, not mechanically." Pivnick v. Beck, 326 N.J.Super. 474, 485 , 741 A. 2d 655 (App.Div.1999) aff'd o.b., 165 N.J. 670 , 762 A. 2d 653 (2000) (quoting In re Tanelli, 194 N.J.Super. 492, 497 , 477 A. 2d 394 (App.Div.), certif. denied, 99 N.J. 181 , 491 A. 2d 686 (1984)); see also Barker v. Brinegar, 346 N.J.Super. 558, 567 , 788 A. 2d 834 (App.Div.2002).

2002However, these cases contain conflicting suggestions as to the proper interpretation of the indemnification clause in issue and, in any event, application of the collateral estoppel doctrine is discretionary and "must be applied equitably, not mechanically." Pivnick v. Beck, 326 N.J.Super. 474, 485 , 741 A. 2d 655 (App.Div.1999) aff'd o.b., 165 N.J. 670 , 762 A. 2d 653 (2000) (quoting In re Tanelli, 194 N.J.Super. 492, 497 , 477 A. 2d 394 (App.Div.), certif. denied, 99 N.J. 181 , 491 A. 2d 686 (1984)); see also Barker v. Brinegar, 346 N.J.Super. 558, 567 , 788 A. 2d 834 (App.Div.2002).

12002–2002
Heuer, Inc. v. State green
nj · 1984
2 sentences

2002However, these cases contain conflicting suggestions as to the proper interpretation of the indemnification clause in issue and, in any event, application of the collateral estoppel doctrine is discretionary and "must be applied equitably, not mechanically." Pivnick v. Beck, 326 N.J.Super. 474, 485 , 741 A. 2d 655 (App.Div.1999) aff'd o.b., 165 N.J. 670 , 762 A. 2d 653 (2000) (quoting In re Tanelli, 194 N.J.Super. 492, 497 , 477 A. 2d 394 (App.Div.), certif. denied, 99 N.J. 181 , 491 A. 2d 686 (1984)); see also Barker v. Brinegar, 346 N.J.Super. 558, 567 , 788 A. 2d 834 (App.Div.2002).

2002However, these cases contain conflicting suggestions as to the proper interpretation of the indemnification clause in issue and, in any event, application of the collateral estoppel doctrine is discretionary and "must be applied equitably, not mechanically." Pivnick v. Beck, 326 N.J.Super. 474, 485 , 741 A. 2d 655 (App.Div.1999) aff'd o.b., 165 N.J. 670 , 762 A. 2d 653 (2000) (quoting In re Tanelli, 194 N.J.Super. 492, 497 , 477 A. 2d 394 (App.Div.), certif. denied, 99 N.J. 181 , 491 A. 2d 686 (1984)); see also Barker v. Brinegar, 346 N.J.Super. 558, 567 , 788 A. 2d 834 (App.Div.2002).

12002–2002
Matter of Tanelli green
njsuperctappdiv · 1984
2 sentences

2002However, these cases contain conflicting suggestions as to the proper interpretation of the indemnification clause in issue and, in any event, application of the collateral estoppel doctrine is discretionary and "must be applied equitably, not mechanically." Pivnick v. Beck, 326 N.J.Super. 474, 485 , 741 A. 2d 655 (App.Div.1999) aff'd o.b., 165 N.J. 670 , 762 A. 2d 653 (2000) (quoting In re Tanelli, 194 N.J.Super. 492, 497 , 477 A. 2d 394 (App.Div.), certif. denied, 99 N.J. 181 , 491 A. 2d 686 (1984)); see also Barker v. Brinegar, 346 N.J.Super. 558, 567 , 788 A. 2d 834 (App.Div.2002).

2002However, these cases contain conflicting suggestions as to the proper interpretation of the indemnification clause in issue and, in any event, application of the collateral estoppel doctrine is discretionary and "must be applied equitably, not mechanically." Pivnick v. Beck, 326 N.J.Super. 474, 485 , 741 A. 2d 655 (App.Div.1999) aff'd o.b., 165 N.J. 670 , 762 A. 2d 653 (2000) (quoting In re Tanelli, 194 N.J.Super. 492, 497 , 477 A. 2d 394 (App.Div.), certif. denied, 99 N.J. 181 , 491 A. 2d 686 (1984)); see also Barker v. Brinegar, 346 N.J.Super. 558, 567 , 788 A. 2d 834 (App.Div.2002).

12002–2002
Pivnick v. Beck green
njsuperctappdiv · 1999
2 sentences

2002However, these cases contain conflicting suggestions as to the proper interpretation of the indemnification clause in issue and, in any event, application of the collateral estoppel doctrine is discretionary and "must be applied equitably, not mechanically." Pivnick v. Beck, 326 N.J.Super. 474, 485 , 741 A. 2d 655 (App.Div.1999) aff'd o.b., 165 N.J. 670 , 762 A. 2d 653 (2000) (quoting In re Tanelli, 194 N.J.Super. 492, 497 , 477 A. 2d 394 (App.Div.), certif. denied, 99 N.J. 181 , 491 A. 2d 686 (1984)); see also Barker v. Brinegar, 346 N.J.Super. 558, 567 , 788 A. 2d 834 (App.Div.2002).

2002However, these cases contain conflicting suggestions as to the proper interpretation of the indemnification clause in issue and, in any event, application of the collateral estoppel doctrine is discretionary and "must be applied equitably, not mechanically." Pivnick v. Beck, 326 N.J.Super. 474, 485 , 741 A. 2d 655 (App.Div.1999) aff'd o.b., 165 N.J. 670 , 762 A. 2d 653 (2000) (quoting In re Tanelli, 194 N.J.Super. 492, 497 , 477 A. 2d 394 (App.Div.), certif. denied, 99 N.J. 181 , 491 A. 2d 686 (1984)); see also Barker v. Brinegar, 346 N.J.Super. 558, 567 , 788 A. 2d 834 (App.Div.2002).

12002–2002
Leitao v. Damon G. Douglas Co. green
njsuperctappdiv · 1997
2 sentences

2001Douglas Co., 301 N.J.Super. 187 , *275 693 A.2d 1209 (App.Div.1997), we have not otherwise borrowed insurance principles in determining whether an agreement to hold the indemnitee harmless covers losses attributable to the indemnitee’s own negligence. [Geralnik, supra, slip op. at 15-16.] It is the language of the PBS-Newport contract that controls the relationship and obligations of the parties, not PBS’s insurance policy.

2001Douglas Co., 301 N.J.Super. 187 , *275 693 A.2d 1209 (App.Div.1997), we have not otherwise borrowed insurance principles in determining whether an agreement to hold the indemnitee harmless covers losses attributable to the indemnitee’s own negligence. [Geralnik, supra, slip op. at 15-16.] It is the language of the PBS-Newport contract that controls the relationship and obligations of the parties, not PBS’s insurance policy.

12001–2001
Calderon v. Bollegraaf green
nj · 1996
1 sentence

1998However, in Calderon v. Machinenfabriek Bollegraaf Appingedam BV, 285 N.J.Super. 623 , 667 A. 2d 1111 (App.Div.1995), certif. denied, 144 N.J. 174 , 675 A. 2d 1122 (1996), we observed in dictum that a plaintiff-employee may demonstrate a prima facie case of "intentional wrong" upon proof of the employer's alteration of a workplace machine by removal of a safety device.

11998–1998
Stephenson v. RA Jones & Co., Inc. green
nj · 1986
2 sentences

1998Jones & Co. Inc., 103 N.J. 194, 199-200 , 510 A. 2d 1161 (1986) (while ruling on a manufacturer's indemnification claim against an employer, the Court noted that assuming the manufacturer sent the safety guard with the machine to the employer's plant, and later urged installation of the guards, the employer's failure to install the guard "may bespeak negligence ... but that is the kind of conduct that is immunized by the Workers' Compensation Act").

1998Jones & Co. Inc., 103 N.J. 194, 199-200 , 510 A. 2d 1161 (1986) (while ruling on a manufacturer's indemnification claim against an employer, the Court noted that assuming the manufacturer sent the safety guard with the machine to the employer's plant, and later urged installation of the guards, the employer's failure to install the guard "may bespeak negligence ... but that is the kind of conduct that is immunized by the Workers' Compensation Act").

11998–1998
Calderon v. Bollegraaf green
njsuperctappdiv · 1995
2 sentences

1998However, in Calderon v. Machinenfabriek Bollegraaf Appingedam BV, 285 N.J.Super. 623 , 667 A. 2d 1111 (App.Div.1995), certif. denied, 144 N.J. 174 , 675 A. 2d 1122 (1996), we observed in dictum that a plaintiff-employee may demonstrate a prima facie case of "intentional wrong" upon proof of the employer's alteration of a workplace machine by removal of a safety device.

1998However, in Calderon v. Machinenfabriek Bollegraaf Appingedam BV, 285 N.J.Super. 623 , 667 A. 2d 1111 (App.Div.1995), certif. denied, 144 N.J. 174 , 675 A. 2d 1122 (1996), we observed in dictum that a plaintiff-employee may demonstrate a prima facie case of "intentional wrong" upon proof of the employer's alteration of a workplace machine by removal of a safety device.

11998–1998
Powers v. Union City Bd. of Ed. green
njsuperctappdiv · 1973
2 sentences

1997In addressing the second prong of the indemnification test, the court noted that although the criminal acts were obviously beyond Power’s prescribed duties, that did not immunize the board from statutory liability. 124 N.J.Super. at 595 , 308 A.2d 71 : The court found that the statute requires that the criminal charge involve an act or omission arising out of the performance of a board member’s duties, and that the act or omission arise in the course of performing those duties.

1997In addressing the second prong of the indemnification test, the court noted that although the criminal acts were obviously beyond Power's prescribed duties, that did not immunize the board from statutory liability. 124 N.J.

11997–1997
Rao v. Universal Underwriters, Ins. green
njsuperctappdiv · 1988
1 sentence

1993Co., 228 N.J.

11993–1993
McCabe v. Great Pacific Century green
njsuperctappdiv · 1989
1 sentence

1993Ibid.

11993–1993
Voorhees v. Preferred Mut. Ins. Co. green
njsuperctappdiv · 1991
11992–1992
Miller v. Hall Bldg. Corp. green
njsuperctappdiv · 1985
11988–1988
Johnson v. Johnson green
njsuperctappdiv · 1966
11988–1988
Bortz v. Rammel green
njsuperctappdiv · 1977
11984–1984
Bortz v. Rammel neutral
nj · 1977
11984–1984
Yearicks v. City of Wildwood green
njsuperctappdiv · 1952
11977–1977
Oreathel Alford, Administratrix of the Estate of Ezell Alford v. Hugh Major D/B/A Hugh Major Truck Lines, and Carriers, Inc. green
ca7 · 1972
11974–1974
Cozzi v. Owens Corning Fiber Glass Corp. green
njsuperctappdiv · 1960
11960–1960

Where else courts name it

NY 344 (1962–2026) CT 67 (1976–2017) CA 59 (1959–2025) NJ 42 (1960–2026) OH 38 (1975–2026) MA 37 (1976–2026) IL 35 (1968–2026) FL 34 (1973–2025) DE 34 (1978–2026) IN 31 (1977–2025) PA 31 (1984–2024) GA 24 (1974–2025) TX 24 (1969–2026) NM 21 (1976–2021) WA 18 (1984–2025) MI 17 (1980–2025) IA 16 (1994–2023) MO 15 (1982–2015) VA 13 (1992–2026) MD 13 (1985–2019) MN 11 (1957–2025) DC 11 (1983–2011) ME 10 (1994–2019) VT 10 (1978–2026) MT 8 (1972–2008) LA 7 (1972–2010) UT 7 (1989–2018) RI 6 (1983–2011) WI 6 (1984–2021) CO 6 (1986–2025) AZ 6 (1969–2024) AL 6 (2000–2017) KS 6 (1978–2020) NC 6 (2002–2017) OR 6 (2005–2013) AK 5 (1981–2020) NE 5 (1973–2022) OK 5 (1989–2011) SC 4 (2003–2019) NV 3 (2009–2012) AR 2 (2013–2013) TN 2 (2008–2013) KY 2 (2005–2007) NH 2 (1999–2006) ID 2 (1977–2009) MS 2 (2004–2005)

Opinions by the citing court's state. A doctrine retained in one state and abandoned in another shows up here as a year span that stalls.

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