malice standard in Minnesota

17 Minnesota opinions name it 2 courts 1985–2023 1 in the last five years

The cases below were cited by Minnesota courts in a sentence that names this issue. Sides come from how each citing opinion treated the case (Syfertize flag on that citation), so a case can appear on both: that is where the law is contested. A red or yellow chip is the case's own overall treatment.

Followed or applied (11)

Case	Followed	Cited
New York Times Co. v. Sullivangreen scotus · 1964 · cited in 4 Minnesota opinions naming this issue, 1985–2012 2 sentences 1990Further, "[t]he question whether the evidence in the record * * * is sufficient to 454 support a finding of actual malice is a question of law [based] on the unique character of the interest protected by the actual malice standard." Id. at ___, 109 S.Ct. at 2694-95 (citation and footnote omitted). 1990Further, “[t]he question whether the evidence in the record * * is sufficient to support a finding of actual malice is a question of law [based] on the unique character of the interest protected by the actual malice standard.” Id. at -, 109 S.Ct. at 2694-95 (citation and footnote omitted).	2	4
State Ex Rel. Beaulieu v. City of Mounds Viewgreen minn · 1994 · cited in 2 Minnesota opinions naming this issue, 1997–2014 2 sentences 2014The malice exception “contemplates an objective inquiry into the legal reasonableness of an official’s actions.” State by Beaulieu v. City of Mounds View, 518 N.W.2d 567, 571 (Minn. 1994). 1997See id., 518 N.W.2d at 572, n. 8 .	2	2
Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc.green scotus · 1974 · cited in 3 Minnesota opinions naming this issue, 1987–2023 2 sentences 2023The Court discussed the applicability of the actual malice standard in Gertz v. Robert Welch, 418 U.S. 323 (1974). 2023The Court discussed the applicability of the actual malice standard in Gertz v. Robert Welch, 418 U.S. 323 (1974).	1	3
Rico v. Stategreen minn · 1991 · cited in 3 Minnesota opinions naming this issue, 1998–2014 2 sentences 2014Rico, 472 N.W.2d at 107 . 1998The malice exception requires more than intent to do an act that a fact-finder later concludes is wrong; rather, “the exception anticipates liability only when an official intentionally commits an act that he or she then has reason to believe is prohibited.” Rico, 472 N.W.2d at 107 ; see Greiner v. City of Champlin, 27 F.3d 1346, 1355 (8th Cir. 1994) (under Rico definition of malice, police officers officially immune from intentional tort claims at summary judgment stage because officers who injured partygoers while arresting them did not show malice).	1	3
Maethner v. Someplace Safe, Inc.green minn · 2019 · cited in 1 Minnesota opinions naming this issue, 2023–2023 2 sentences 2023See Maethner v. Someplace Safe, Inc., 929 N.W.2d 868, 877–78 (Minn. 2019). 2 For the former, a plaintiff must show actual malice to recover; for the latter, state law governs. 2023See Maethner v. Someplace Safe, Inc., 929 N.W.2d 868, 877–78 (Minn. 2019). 2 For the former, a plaintiff must show actual malice to recover; for the latter, state law governs.	1	1
Pearce v. E.F. Hutton Group, Inc.green dcd · 1987 · cited in 1 Minnesota opinions naming this issue, 2003–2003 2 sentences 2003Hutton Group, 664 F.Supp. 1490, 1507 (D.D.C.1987) (“Defendant cannot bootstrap himself into the protection of the actual malice standard by pointing to the controversy over the plaintiff that he himself created by his publication.”). 3 Accordingly, if Peterson was the source of the media coverage that she relies upon to establish a public controversy, she would be disqualified from asserting the privilege for speech concerning a limited purpose public figure. 4 This analysis requires us to examine more closely the evidence concerning when the public controversy (which was present by August 6, 2003Hutton Group, 664 F.Supp. 1490, 1507 (D.D.C.1987) ("Defendant cannot bootstrap himself into the protection of the actual malice standard by pointing to the controversy over the plaintiff that he himself created by his publication."). [3] Accordingly, if Peterson was the source of the media coverage that she relies upon to establish a public controversy, she would be disqualified from asserting the privilege for speech concerning a limited purpose public figure. [4] This analysis requires us to examine more closely the evidence concerning when the public controversy (which was present by August	1	1
Diesen v. Hessburggreen minn · 1990 · cited in 1 Minnesota opinions naming this issue, 2001–2001 2 sentences 2001Although this issue was not presented to the district court, whether evidence in the record "is sufficient to support a finding of actual malice is a question of law [based] on the unique character of the interest protected by the actual malice standard." Diesen v. Hessburg, 455 N.W.2d 446, 453-54 (Minn.1990) (quotation omitted). 2001Although this issue was not presented to the district court, whether evidence in the record “is sufficient to support a finding of actual malice is a question of law [based] on the unique character of the interest protected by the actual malice standard.” Diesen v. Hessburg, 455 N.W.2d 446, 453-54 (Minn.1990) (quotation omitted).	1	1
Brooks v. Doherty, Rumble & Butlergreen minnctapp · 1992 · cited in 1 Minnesota opinions naming this issue, 1999–1999 1 sentence 1999Brooks v. Doherty, Rumble Butler, 481 N.W.2d 120, 126 (Minn.App.1992), review denied (Minn. Apr. 29, 1992).	1	1
cluster 672912green ca8 · 1994 · cited in 1 Minnesota opinions naming this issue, 1998–1998 1 sentence 1998The malice exception requires more than intent to do an act that a fact-finder later concludes is wrong; rather, “the exception anticipates liability only when an official intentionally commits an act that he or she then has reason to believe is prohibited.” Rico, 472 N.W.2d at 107 ; see Greiner v. City of Champlin, 27 F.3d 1346, 1355 (8th Cir. 1994) (under Rico definition of malice, police officers officially immune from intentional tort claims at summary judgment stage because officers who injured partygoers while arresting them did not show malice).	1	1
Diversified Management, Inc. v. Denver Post, Inc.green colo · 1982 · cited in 1 Minnesota opinions naming this issue, 1985–1985	1	1
Gaeta v. New York News Inc.green ny · 1984 · cited in 1 Minnesota opinions naming this issue, 1985–1985 2 sentences 1985See Gaeta v. New York News, Inc., 62 N.Y.2d 340 , 465 N.E.2d 802 , 477 N.Y.S.2d 82 (1984). 1985See Gaeta v. New York News, Inc., 62 N.Y.2d 340 , 465 N.E.2d 802 , 477 N.Y.S.2d 82 (1984).	1	1

Distinguished, questioned or overruled (1)

Case	Negative	Cited
Carradine v. Stategreen minnctapp · 1992 · cited in 1 Minnesota opinions naming this issue, 1998–1998 1 sentence 1998But see Carradine, 494 N.W.2d at 81 (malice in the official immunity doctrine linked with negligent infliction of emotional distress intent by this court).	1	1

Also cited on this issue (33)

Case	Cited	Years
St. Amant v. Thompson green scotus · 1968 2 sentences 2019Amant v. Thompson , 390 U.S. 727 , 731, 88 S.Ct. 1323 , 20 L.Ed.2d 262 (1968) ). 2019Amant v. Thompson , 390 U.S. 727 , 731, 88 S.Ct. 1323 , 20 L.Ed.2d 262 (1968) ).	2	2003–2019
Jadwin v. Minneapolis Star & Tribune Co. green minn · 1985 2 sentences 1995Jadwin, 367 N.W.2d at 491 . 1995Jadwin, 367 N.W.2d at 491 .	2	1987–1995
Chafoulias v. Peterson green minn · 2003 1 sentence 2019In our court, Maethner bases his claim of actual malice on "[t]he total absence of any effort by Someplace Safe to investigate, and its self-imposed blindness for any corroboration of even the most minimal sort of [Jorud's] accusations." We have held, however, that the "mere failure to investigate" is "not dispositive of actual malice"; rather, "to meet the actual malice standard, '[t]here must be sufficient evidence to permit the conclusion that the defendant in fact entertained serious doubts as to the truth of his publication.' " Chafoulias v. Peterson , 668 N.W.2d 642 , 655 (Minn. 2003) (a	1	2019–2019
cluster 2144 green · 2 sentences 2015Removing language, as argued by the state, and adding language, as required by law, would require a rewrite of the statute and “would constitute a serious invasion of the legislative domain.” Stevens, 559 U.S. at 481 , 130 S.Ct. at 1592 . 2015Removing language, as argued by the state, and adding language, as required by law, would require a rewrite of the statute and “would constitute a serious invasion of the legislative domain.” Stevens, 559 U.S. at 481 , 130 S.Ct. at 1592 .	1	2015–2015
State v. Crawley green minn · 2012 1 sentence 2015In Crawley , the supreme court noted that the mental state required for conviction under Minn.Stat. § 609.505, subd. 2, “exceeded] the actual malice standard for defamation of a public official established by the Supreme Court.” 819 N.W.2d at 108 .	1	2015–2015
Garrison v. Louisiana green scotus · 1964 2 sentences 2012See New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, 376 U.S. 254, 279-80 , 84 S.Ct. 710 , 11 L.Ed.2d 686 (1964) (concluding that a public official may not recover damages for “a defamatory falsehood” absent proof that the statement was made with knowledge it was false, or with reckless disregard of whether the statement was true or false); Garrison v. Louisiana, 379 U.S. 64, 77-78 , 85 S.Ct. 209 , 13 L.Ed.2d 125 (1964) (applying New York Times standard to a criminal defamation statute). 2012See New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, 376 U.S. 254, 279-80 , 84 S.Ct. 710 , 11 L.Ed.2d 686 (1964) (concluding that a public official may not recover damages for “a defamatory falsehood” absent proof that the statement was made with knowledge it was false, or with reckless disregard of whether the statement was true or false); Garrison v. Louisiana, 379 U.S. 64, 77-78 , 85 S.Ct. 209 , 13 L.Ed.2d 125 (1964) (applying New York Times standard to a criminal defamation statute).	1	2012–2012
Harte-Hanks Communications, Inc. v. Connaughton green scotus · 1989 2 sentences 2002But while evidence of the speaker’s motive may bear some relation to a determination of actual malice, “the actual malice standard is not satisfied merely through a showing of ill will or ‘malice’ in the ordinary sense of the term.” Harte-Hanks Communications, Inc. v. Connaughton, 491 U.S. 657, 666 , 109 S.Ct. 2678, 2685 , 105 L.Ed.2d 562 (1989) (citations and footnote omitted). 2002But while evidence of the speaker’s motive may bear some relation to a determination of actual malice, “the actual malice standard is not satisfied merely through a showing of ill will or ‘malice’ in the ordinary sense of the term.” Harte-Hanks Communications, Inc. v. Connaughton, 491 U.S. 657, 666 , 109 S.Ct. 2678, 2685 , 105 L.Ed.2d 562 (1989) (citations and footnote omitted).	1	2002–2002
Hirman v. Rogers green minn · 1977 2 sentences 1989Hirman, 257 N.W.2d at 566 . 1989Hirman, 257 N.W.2d at 566 .	1	1989–1989
United States v. Winona & St. Peter Railroad green scotus · 1897 1 sentence 1987This issue-oriented approach was rejected, however, in Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc., 418 U.S. 323 , 94 S.Ct. 2997 , 41 L.Ed. 789 (1974).	1	1987–1987
National Ass'n for the Advancement of Colored People v. Button green scotus · 1963 2 sentences 1987The court concluded that the actual malice requirement was needed to protect the flow of free debate and information, because “erroneous statement[s] [are] inevitable in free debate, and * * * must be protected if the freedoms of expression are to have the ‘breathing space’ that they ‘need * * * to survive’ * * Id. at 271-72, 84 S.Ct. at 721 -22 (quoting N.A.A.C.P. v. Button, 371 U.S. 415, 433 , 83 S.Ct. 328, 338 , 9 L.Ed.2d 405 (1963)). 1987The court concluded that the actual malice requirement was needed to protect the flow of free debate and information, because “erroneous statement[s] [are] inevitable in free debate, and * * * must be protected if the freedoms of expression are to have the ‘breathing space’ that they ‘need * * * to survive’ * * Id. at 271-72, 84 S.Ct. at 721 -22 (quoting N.A.A.C.P. v. Button, 371 U.S. 415, 433 , 83 S.Ct. 328, 338 , 9 L.Ed.2d 405 (1963)).	1	1987–1987
Curtis Publishing Co. v. Butts green scotus · 1967 2 sentences 1987The court extended the actual malice standard to “public figures” in Curtis Publishing Co. v. Butts, 388 U.S. 130 , 87 S.Ct. 1975 , 18 L.Ed.2d 1094 (1967). 1987The court extended the actual malice standard to “public figures” in Curtis Publishing Co. v. Butts, 388 U.S. 130 , 87 S.Ct. 1975 , 18 L.Ed.2d 1094 (1967).	1	1987–1987
Rosenbloom v. Metromedia, Inc. red scotus · 1971 2 sentences 1987In Rosenbloom v. Metromedia, Inc., 403 U.S. 29 , 91 S.Ct. 1811 , 29 L.Ed.2d 296 (1971), a plurality of the court extended the actual malice standard to all matters of public interest regardless of the plaintiff’s status. 1987In Rosenbloom v. Metromedia, Inc., 403 U.S. 29 , 91 S.Ct. 1811 , 29 L.Ed.2d 296 (1971), a plurality of the court extended the actual malice standard to all matters of public interest regardless of the plaintiff’s status.	1	1987–1987
Jacron Sales Co. v. Sindorf green md · 1976 2 sentences 1985Chapadeau v. Utica Observer-Dispatch, Inc., 38 N.Y.2d 196 , 341 N.E.2d 569, 571 , 379 N.Y.S.2d 61, 64 . [15] Dresbach v. Doubleday & Co., Inc., 518 F.Supp. 1285 (D.D.C.1981); Peagler v. Phoenix Newspapers, Inc., 114 Ariz. 309 , 560 P.2d 1216 (1977); Dodrill v. Arkansas Democrat Co., 265 Ark. 628 , 590 S.W.2d 840 (1979) cert. denied 444 U.S. 1076 , 100 S.Ct. 1024 , 62 L.Ed.2d 759 (1979); Cahill v. Hawaiian Paradise Park Corp., 56 Haw. 522 , 543 P.2d 1356 (1975); Troman v. Wood, 62 Ill.2d 184, 187 , 340 N.E.2d 292 (1975); Gobin v. Globe Publishing Co., 216 Kan. 223 , 531 P.2d 76 (1975) (limited 1985Chapadeau v. Utica Observer-Dispatch, Inc., 38 N.Y.2d 196 , 341 N.E.2d 569, 571 , 379 N.Y.S.2d 61, 64 . [15] Dresbach v. Doubleday & Co., Inc., 518 F.Supp. 1285 (D.D.C.1981); Peagler v. Phoenix Newspapers, Inc., 114 Ariz. 309 , 560 P.2d 1216 (1977); Dodrill v. Arkansas Democrat Co., 265 Ark. 628 , 590 S.W.2d 840 (1979) cert. denied 444 U.S. 1076 , 100 S.Ct. 1024 , 62 L.Ed.2d 759 (1979); Cahill v. Hawaiian Paradise Park Corp., 56 Haw. 522 , 543 P.2d 1356 (1975); Troman v. Wood, 62 Ill.2d 184, 187 , 340 N.E.2d 292 (1975); Gobin v. Globe Publishing Co., 216 Kan. 223 , 531 P.2d 76 (1975) (limited	1	1985–1985
Dresbach v. Doubleday & Co., Inc. green dcd · 1981	1	1985–1985
Dodrill v. Arkansas Democrat Co. green ark · 1979	1	1985–1985
McCusker v. Valley News green nh · 1981 2 sentences 1985Chapadeau v. Utica Observer-Dispatch, Inc., 38 N.Y.2d 196 , 341 N.E.2d 569, 571 , 379 N.Y.S.2d 61, 64 . [15] Dresbach v. Doubleday & Co., Inc., 518 F.Supp. 1285 (D.D.C.1981); Peagler v. Phoenix Newspapers, Inc., 114 Ariz. 309 , 560 P.2d 1216 (1977); Dodrill v. Arkansas Democrat Co., 265 Ark. 628 , 590 S.W.2d 840 (1979) cert. denied 444 U.S. 1076 , 100 S.Ct. 1024 , 62 L.Ed.2d 759 (1979); Cahill v. Hawaiian Paradise Park Corp., 56 Haw. 522 , 543 P.2d 1356 (1975); Troman v. Wood, 62 Ill.2d 184, 187 , 340 N.E.2d 292 (1975); Gobin v. Globe Publishing Co., 216 Kan. 223 , 531 P.2d 76 (1975) (limited 1985Chapadeau v. Utica Observer-Dispatch, Inc., 38 N.Y.2d 196 , 341 N.E.2d 569, 571 , 379 N.Y.S.2d 61, 64 . [15] Dresbach v. Doubleday & Co., Inc., 518 F.Supp. 1285 (D.D.C.1981); Peagler v. Phoenix Newspapers, Inc., 114 Ariz. 309 , 560 P.2d 1216 (1977); Dodrill v. Arkansas Democrat Co., 265 Ark. 628 , 590 S.W.2d 840 (1979) cert. denied 444 U.S. 1076 , 100 S.Ct. 1024 , 62 L.Ed.2d 759 (1979); Cahill v. Hawaiian Paradise Park Corp., 56 Haw. 522 , 543 P.2d 1356 (1975); Troman v. Wood, 62 Ill.2d 184, 187 , 340 N.E.2d 292 (1975); Gobin v. Globe Publishing Co., 216 Kan. 223 , 531 P.2d 76 (1975) (limited	1	1985–1985
Chapadeau v. Utica Observer-Dispatch, Inc. green ny · 1975	1	1985–1985
Gobin v. Globe Publishing Co. green kan · 1975	1	1985–1985
Stone v. Essex County Newspapers, Inc. green mass · 1975	1	1985–1985
Rose v. Koch green minn · 1967	1	1985–1985
Cahill v. Hawaiian Paradise Park Corporation green haw · 1975	1	1985–1985
McCall v. Courier-Journal & Louisville Times Co. green ky · 1981 1 sentence 1985Chapadeau v. Utica Observer-Dispatch, Inc., 38 N.Y.2d 196 , 341 N.E.2d 569, 571 , 379 N.Y.S.2d 61, 64 . [15] Dresbach v. Doubleday & Co., Inc., 518 F.Supp. 1285 (D.D.C.1981); Peagler v. Phoenix Newspapers, Inc., 114 Ariz. 309 , 560 P.2d 1216 (1977); Dodrill v. Arkansas Democrat Co., 265 Ark. 628 , 590 S.W.2d 840 (1979) cert. denied 444 U.S. 1076 , 100 S.Ct. 1024 , 62 L.Ed.2d 759 (1979); Cahill v. Hawaiian Paradise Park Corp., 56 Haw. 522 , 543 P.2d 1356 (1975); Troman v. Wood, 62 Ill.2d 184, 187 , 340 N.E.2d 292 (1975); Gobin v. Globe Publishing Co., 216 Kan. 223 , 531 P.2d 76 (1975) (limited	1	1985–1985
Martin Marietta Corp. v. Evening Star Newspaper Co. green dcd · 1976 2 sentences 1985Martin Marietta, 417 F.Supp. at 956 ; see also Diversified Management v. Denver Post, Inc., 653 P.2d 1103 (Colo. 1982). 1985Martin Marietta, 417 F.Supp. at 956 ; see also Diversified Management v. Denver Post, Inc., 653 P.2d 1103 (Colo.1982).	1	1985–1985
Peagler v. Phoenix Newspapers, Inc. green ariz · 1977	1	1985–1985
Barry v. New Jersey green scotus · 1981 2 sentences 1985Chapadeau v. Utica Observer-Dispatch, Inc., 38 N.Y.2d 196 , 341 N.E.2d 569, 571 , 379 N.Y.S.2d 61, 64 . [15] Dresbach v. Doubleday & Co., Inc., 518 F.Supp. 1285 (D.D.C.1981); Peagler v. Phoenix Newspapers, Inc., 114 Ariz. 309 , 560 P.2d 1216 (1977); Dodrill v. Arkansas Democrat Co., 265 Ark. 628 , 590 S.W.2d 840 (1979) cert. denied 444 U.S. 1076 , 100 S.Ct. 1024 , 62 L.Ed.2d 759 (1979); Cahill v. Hawaiian Paradise Park Corp., 56 Haw. 522 , 543 P.2d 1356 (1975); Troman v. Wood, 62 Ill.2d 184, 187 , 340 N.E.2d 292 (1975); Gobin v. Globe Publishing Co., 216 Kan. 223 , 531 P.2d 76 (1975) (limited 1985Chapadeau v. Utica Observer-Dispatch, Inc., 38 N.Y.2d 196 , 341 N.E.2d 569, 571 , 379 N.Y.S.2d 61, 64 . [15] Dresbach v. Doubleday & Co., Inc., 518 F.Supp. 1285 (D.D.C.1981); Peagler v. Phoenix Newspapers, Inc., 114 Ariz. 309 , 560 P.2d 1216 (1977); Dodrill v. Arkansas Democrat Co., 265 Ark. 628 , 590 S.W.2d 840 (1979) cert. denied 444 U.S. 1076 , 100 S.Ct. 1024 , 62 L.Ed.2d 759 (1979); Cahill v. Hawaiian Paradise Park Corp., 56 Haw. 522 , 543 P.2d 1356 (1975); Troman v. Wood, 62 Ill.2d 184, 187 , 340 N.E.2d 292 (1975); Gobin v. Globe Publishing Co., 216 Kan. 223 , 531 P.2d 76 (1975) (limited	1	1985–1985
Lorch v. Commissioner green scotus · 1980	1	1985–1985
Roberts v. Upper Milford Township green scotus · 1980 1 sentence 1985Chapadeau v. Utica Observer-Dispatch, Inc., 38 N.Y.2d 196 , 341 N.E.2d 569, 571 , 379 N.Y.S.2d 61, 64 . [15] Dresbach v. Doubleday & Co., Inc., 518 F.Supp. 1285 (D.D.C.1981); Peagler v. Phoenix Newspapers, Inc., 114 Ariz. 309 , 560 P.2d 1216 (1977); Dodrill v. Arkansas Democrat Co., 265 Ark. 628 , 590 S.W.2d 840 (1979) cert. denied 444 U.S. 1076 , 100 S.Ct. 1024 , 62 L.Ed.2d 759 (1979); Cahill v. Hawaiian Paradise Park Corp., 56 Haw. 522 , 543 P.2d 1356 (1975); Troman v. Wood, 62 Ill.2d 184, 187 , 340 N.E.2d 292 (1975); Gobin v. Globe Publishing Co., 216 Kan. 223 , 531 P.2d 76 (1975) (limited	1	1985–1985
Little Rock Newspapers, Inc. v. Dodrill green scotus · 1980 1 sentence 1985Chapadeau v. Utica Observer-Dispatch, Inc., 38 N.Y.2d 196 , 341 N.E.2d 569, 571 , 379 N.Y.S.2d 61, 64 . [15] Dresbach v. Doubleday & Co., Inc., 518 F.Supp. 1285 (D.D.C.1981); Peagler v. Phoenix Newspapers, Inc., 114 Ariz. 309 , 560 P.2d 1216 (1977); Dodrill v. Arkansas Democrat Co., 265 Ark. 628 , 590 S.W.2d 840 (1979) cert. denied 444 U.S. 1076 , 100 S.Ct. 1024 , 62 L.Ed.2d 759 (1979); Cahill v. Hawaiian Paradise Park Corp., 56 Haw. 522 , 543 P.2d 1356 (1975); Troman v. Wood, 62 Ill.2d 184, 187 , 340 N.E.2d 292 (1975); Gobin v. Globe Publishing Co., 216 Kan. 223 , 531 P.2d 76 (1975) (limited	1	1985–1985
Valley News v. McCusker green scotus · 1981	1	1985–1985
Trifa v. United States green scotus · 1982	1	1985–1985
Alford v. City of Lubbock green scotus · 1982	1	1985–1985
Troman v. Wood green ill · 1975	1	1985–1985
Marchiondo v. Brown green nm · 1982	1	1985–1985

Statutes the citing opinions construe

MN § Minn. Stat. § 609.505 (3)

Counted by distinct opinions that both name this issue and are annotated to the section; sections every opinion cites regardless of issue are not filtered here, so read the counts against the total above.

Where else courts name it

CA 232 (1979–2026) TX 61 (1984–2025) MA 55 (1971–2025) PA 52 (1966–2026) WA 44 (1969–2025) NJ 41 (1982–2026) MI 40 (1977–2022) NY 33 (1975–2024) OH 27 (1980–2025) IL 26 (1968–2014) FL 23 (1978–2025) SC 22 (1978–2024) MD 20 (1978–2022) IN 18 (1974–2017) MN 17 (1985–2023) IA 16 (1979–2026) TN 16 (1978–2024) NC 15 (1983–2025) GA 14 (1984–2026) WV 12 (1981–2020) DC 12 (1975–2023) KY 10 (1989–2024) WI 10 (1988–2024) WY 10 (1884–2019) AZ 10 (1976–2025) LA 10 (1978–2025) VA 10 (1985–2026) MO 10 (1984–2024) ID 10 (1990–2017) NM 9 (2008–2023) NV 7 (2000–2024) CO 7 (1981–2025) OK 7 (1984–2017) DE 7 (1985–2024) UT 7 (1981–2019) AL 7 (1980–2007) MS 6 (1977–2023) MT 5 (1980–2004) AK 5 (1988–2007) VT 5 (1990–2013) VI 4 (2010–2013) AR 4 (1979–2021) ME 4 (1985–2021) CT 4 (1982–2015) OR 4 (1983–1997) NH 2 (2007–2021)

Opinions by the citing court's state. A doctrine retained in one state and abandoned in another shows up here as a year span that stalls.

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