void-for-vagueness challenge (Maine) · Go Syfert
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void-for-vagueness challenge in Maine

21 Maine opinions name it 2 courts 1974–2024 7 in the last five years

The cases below were cited by Maine courts in a sentence that names this issue. Sides come from how each citing opinion treated the case (Syfertize flag on that citation), so a case can appear on both: that is where the law is contested. A red or yellow chip is the case's own overall treatment.

Followed or applied (12)

CaseFollowedCited
State v. Withamgreen
me · 2005 · cited in 3 Maine opinions naming this issue, 2006–2024
2 sentences

2024See State v. Witham, 2005 ME 79, ¶ 7 , 876 A.2d 40 (noting that a void-for-vagueness challenge is rooted in the due process clause). 24 prudential doctrines, . . . for example, whether the issue was raised below.”); see also Shea v. Louisiana, 470 U.S. 51 , 58 n.4 (1985) (noting the rule of retroactivity is “subject . . . to established principles of waiver, harmless error, and the like”). [¶41] Nevertheless, we will address the question of Counterman’s effect on the instant case because the application of the new standard announced in Counterman may have the potential to affect the outcome.

2024See State v. Witham, 2005 ME 79, ¶ 7 , 876 A.2d 40 (noting that a void-for-vagueness challenge is rooted in the due process clause). 24 prudential doctrines, . . . for example, whether the issue was raised below.”); see also Shea v. Louisiana, 470 U.S. 51 , 58 n.4 (1985) (noting the rule of retroactivity is “subject . . . to established principles of waiver, harmless error, and the like”). [¶41] Nevertheless, we will address the question of Counterman’s effect on the instant case because the application of the new standard announced in Counterman may have the potential to affect the outcome.

33
Shapiro Bros. Shoe Co. v. Lewiston-Auburn Shoeworkers Protective Ass'ngreen
me · 1974 · cited in 3 Maine opinions naming this issue, 1976–2006
2 sentences

1976A statute which fails to meet this test, i. e., that “sets guidelines which would force men of general intelligence to guess at its meaning, leaving them without assurance that their behavior complies with legal requirements and forcing courts to be uncertain in their interpretation of the law,” Id., is characterized as “void for vagueness.” Although the void-for-vagueness doctrine receives its commonest application in the criminal law context, “[T]he doctrine has [also] been applied in instances where one must conform his conduct to a civil regulation.” Id.

1976A statute which fails to meet this test, i. e., that “sets guidelines which would force men of general intelligence to guess at its meaning, leaving them without assurance that their behavior complies with legal requirements and forcing courts to be uncertain in their interpretation of the law,” Id., is characterized as “void for vagueness.” Although the void-for-vagueness doctrine receives its commonest application in the criminal law context, “[T]he doctrine has [also] been applied in instances where one must conform his conduct to a civil regulation.” Id.

23
State of Maine v. David Reckardsgreen
me · 2015 · cited in 5 Maine opinions naming this issue, 2017–2023
2 sentences

2022“In a void-for-vagueness challenge, we do not analyze the statute to ascertain if it is valid on its face, but instead assess the challenge by testing it in the circumstances of the individual case and considering whether the statutory language was sufficiently clear to give the defendant adequate notice that his conduct was proscribed.” State v. Reckards, 2015 ME 31, ¶ 4 , 113 A.3d 589 (quotation marks omitted). “[N]ot every ambiguity, uncertainty or imprecision of language in a statutory pattern is unconstitutional, and a statute will withstand a vagueness challenge if any reasonable constru

2022“In a void-for-vagueness challenge, we do not analyze the statute to ascertain if it is valid on its face, but instead assess the challenge by testing it in the circumstances of the individual case and considering whether the statutory language was sufficiently clear to give the defendant adequate notice that his conduct was proscribed.” State v. Reckards, 2015 ME 31, ¶ 4 , 113 A.3d 589 (quotation marks omitted). “[N]ot every ambiguity, uncertainty or imprecision of language in a statutory pattern is unconstitutional, and a statute will withstand a vagueness challenge if any reasonable constru

15
Maine Real Estate Commission v. Kelbygreen
me · 1976 · cited in 2 Maine opinions naming this issue, 2006–2014
2 sentences

2006“Although the void-for-vagueness doctrine receives its commonest application in the criminal law context, ‘[T]he doctrine has [also] been applied in instane- es where one must conform his conduct to a civil regulation.’ ” Kelby, 360 A.2d at 531 (quoting Shapiro Bros.

2006"Although the void-for-vagueness doctrine receives its commonest application in the criminal law context, `[T]he doctrine has [also] been applied in instances *287 where one must conform his conduct to a civil regulation.'" Kelby, 360 A.2d at 531 (quoting Shapiro Bros.

12
Shea v. Louisianagreen
scotus · 1985 · cited in 1 Maine opinions naming this issue, 2024–2024
1 sentence

2024See State v. Witham, 2005 ME 79, ¶ 7 , 876 A.2d 40 (noting that a void-for-vagueness challenge is rooted in the due process clause). 24 prudential doctrines, . . . for example, whether the issue was raised below.”); see also Shea v. Louisiana, 470 U.S. 51 , 58 n.4 (1985) (noting the rule of retroactivity is “subject . . . to established principles of waiver, harmless error, and the like”). [¶41] Nevertheless, we will address the question of Counterman’s effect on the instant case because the application of the new standard announced in Counterman may have the potential to affect the outcome.

11
Tri-State Rubbish, Inc. v. Town of New Gloucestergreen
me · 1993 · cited in 1 Maine opinions naming this issue, 2021–2021
1 sentence

2021Indeed, the Law Court has held that an ordinance survives a void for vagueness challenge if that ordinance "can be construed to be constitutional by importing a reasonable person standard into its language." Town of Baldwin, 2002 ME 52 l) 12, 794 A.2d 62 ; see also Tri-State Rubbish, Inc. v. Town ofNew Gloucester, 634 A.2d 1284, 1287 (Me. 1993)("Reasonable compliance is not an unconstitutionally vague concept.

11
United States v. Husseingreen
ca1 · 2003 · cited in 1 Maine opinions naming this issue, 2015–2015
1 sentence

2015United States v. Hussein, 351 F.3d 9, 11 (1st Cir.2003).

11
Gun Owners' Action League, Inc. v. Swiftgreen
ca1 · 2002 · cited in 1 Maine opinions naming this issue, 2006–2006
1 sentence

2006Shoe Co., Inc. v. Lewiston-Auburn Shoeworkers Protective Ass'n, 320 A.2d 247,253 (Me. 1974); see also Gun Owners' Action League, Inc. v. Swift, 284 F.3d 198, 205 (I st Cir. 2002) ("When citizens cannot determine what conduct a law proscribes, the law's vagueness may raise constitutional due process concerns.") "A statute is void for vagueness when it sets guidelines which would force men of general intelligence to guess at its meaning, leaving them without assurance that their behavior complies with legal requirements and forcing courts to be uncertain in their interpretation of the law." Shap

11
State v. Hillsgreen
me · 1990 · cited in 1 Maine opinions naming this issue, 2005–2005
1 sentence

2005Despite Witham’s arguments to the contrary, the depraved indifference murder standard is not irrelevant to the proper construction of section 1031(1 — B); rather, it is informative as to the meaning of “depraved indifference to animal life or suffering.” [¶ 11] In response to a void for vagueness challenge, “the ‘sufficiency of the language of [a] statute is properly tested in the circumstances of the case at bar.’ ” State v. McLaughlin, 2002 ME 55, ¶ 9 , 794 A.2d 69, 73 (quoting State v. Hills, 574 A.2d 1357, 1358 (Me.1990)).

11
State v. McLaughlingreen
me · 2002 · cited in 1 Maine opinions naming this issue, 2005–2005
2 sentences

2005Despite Witham’s arguments to the contrary, the depraved indifference murder standard is not irrelevant to the proper construction of section 1031(1 — B); rather, it is informative as to the meaning of “depraved indifference to animal life or suffering.” [¶ 11] In response to a void for vagueness challenge, “the ‘sufficiency of the language of [a] statute is properly tested in the circumstances of the case at bar.’ ” State v. McLaughlin, 2002 ME 55, ¶ 9 , 794 A.2d 69, 73 (quoting State v. Hills, 574 A.2d 1357, 1358 (Me.1990)).

2005Despite Witham’s arguments to the contrary, the depraved indifference murder standard is not irrelevant to the proper construction of section 1031(1 — B); rather, it is informative as to the meaning of “depraved indifference to animal life or suffering.” [¶ 11] In response to a void for vagueness challenge, “the ‘sufficiency of the language of [a] statute is properly tested in the circumstances of the case at bar.’ ” State v. McLaughlin, 2002 ME 55, ¶ 9 , 794 A.2d 69, 73 (quoting State v. Hills, 574 A.2d 1357, 1358 (Me.1990)).

11
Harmon v. Emersongreen
me · 1981 · cited in 1 Maine opinions naming this issue, 1987–1987
2 sentences

1987Harmon v. Emerson, 425 A.2d 978, 984 (Me.1981).

1987Harmon v. Emerson, 425 A.2d 978, 984 (Me.1981).

11
State v. Karmil Merchandising Corp.green
me · 1962 · cited in 1 Maine opinions naming this issue, 1976–1976
11

Distinguished, questioned or overruled (0)

CaseNegativeCited
No negative-treatment citations attached to this issue in Maine. Read the followed side critically anyway.

Also cited on this issue (21)

CaseCitedYears
State v. Aboda green
me · 2010
2 sentences

2015In a void-for-vagueness challenge, we do not analyze the statute to ascertain if it is valid on its face, but instead assess the challenge “by testing it in the circumstances of the individual case and considering whether the statutory language was sufficiently clear to give the defendant adequate notice that his conduct was proscribed.” State v. Aboda, 2010 ME 125, ¶ 15 , 8 A.3d 719 (quotation marks omitted). [¶ 5] The due process clauses of the United States and Maine Constitutions “require that a statute must provide reasonable and intelligible standards to guide the • future conduct of ind

2015In a void-for-vagueness challenge, we do not analyze the statute to ascertain if it is valid on its face, but instead assess the challenge “by testing it in the circumstances of the individual case and considering whether the statutory language was sufficiently clear to give the defendant adequate notice that his conduct was proscribed.” State v. Aboda, 2010 ME 125, ¶ 15 , 8 A.3d 719 (quotation marks omitted). [¶ 5] The due process clauses of the United States and Maine Constitutions “require that a statute must provide reasonable and intelligible standards to guide the • future conduct of ind

32015–2018
Town of Baldwin v. Carter green
me · 2002
2 sentences

2021Indeed, the Law Court has held that an ordinance survives a void for vagueness challenge if that ordinance "can be construed to be constitutional by importing a reasonable person standard into its language." Town of Baldwin, 2002 ME 52 l) 12, 794 A.2d 62 ; see also Tri-State Rubbish, Inc. v. Town ofNew Gloucester, 634 A.2d 1284, 1287 (Me. 1993)("Reasonable compliance is not an unconstitutionally vague concept.

2021Indeed, the Law Court has held that an ordinance survives a void for vagueness challenge if that ordinance "can be construed to be constitutional by importing a reasonable person standard into its language." Town of Baldwin, 2002 ME 52 l) 12, 794 A.2d 62 ; see also Tri-State Rubbish, Inc. v. Town ofNew Gloucester, 634 A.2d 1284, 1287 (Me. 1993)("Reasonable compliance is not an unconstitutionally vague concept.

22021–2023
Donald Beauchene v. State of Maine green
me · 2017
2 sentences

2022“In a void-for-vagueness challenge, we do not analyze the statute to ascertain if it is valid on its face, but instead assess the challenge by testing it in the circumstances of the individual case and considering whether the statutory language was sufficiently clear to give the defendant adequate notice that his conduct was proscribed.” State v. Reckards, 2015 ME 31, ¶ 4 , 113 A.3d 589 (quotation marks omitted). “[N]ot every ambiguity, uncertainty or imprecision of language in a statutory pattern is unconstitutional, and a statute will withstand a vagueness challenge if any reasonable constru

2022“In a void-for-vagueness challenge, we do not analyze the statute to ascertain if it is valid on its face, but instead assess the challenge by testing it in the circumstances of the individual case and considering whether the statutory language was sufficiently clear to give the defendant adequate notice that his conduct was proscribed.” State v. Reckards, 2015 ME 31, ¶ 4 , 113 A.3d 589 (quotation marks omitted). “[N]ot every ambiguity, uncertainty or imprecision of language in a statutory pattern is unconstitutional, and a statute will withstand a vagueness challenge if any reasonable constru

22022–2022
Beauchene v. State green
me · 2017
2 sentences

2022“In a void-for-vagueness challenge, we do not analyze the statute to ascertain if it is valid on its face, but instead assess the challenge by testing it in the circumstances of the individual case and considering whether the statutory language was sufficiently clear to give the defendant adequate notice that his conduct was proscribed.” State v. Reckards, 2015 ME 31, ¶ 4 , 113 A.3d 589 (quotation marks omitted). “[N]ot every ambiguity, uncertainty or imprecision of language in a statutory pattern is unconstitutional, and a statute will withstand a vagueness challenge if any reasonable constru

2022“In a void-for-vagueness challenge, we do not analyze the statute to ascertain if it is valid on its face, but instead assess the challenge by testing it in the circumstances of the individual case and considering whether the statutory language was sufficiently clear to give the defendant adequate notice that his conduct was proscribed.” State v. Reckards, 2015 ME 31, ¶ 4 , 113 A.3d 589 (quotation marks omitted). “[N]ot every ambiguity, uncertainty or imprecision of language in a statutory pattern is unconstitutional, and a statute will withstand a vagueness challenge if any reasonable constru

22022–2022
State v. Thongsavanh green
me · 2007
2 sentences

2018Rather, “[w]e address a void for vagueness challenge by testing it in the circumstances of the individual case.” State v. Thongsavanh, 2007 ME 20, ¶ 36 , 915 A.2d 421 . 1.

2018Rather, “[w]e address a void for vagueness challenge by testing it in the circumstances of the individual case.” State v. Thongsavanh, 2007 ME 20, ¶ 36 , 915 A.2d 421 . 1.

22018–2018
State v. Falcone green
me · 2006
2 sentences

2018Indeed, a void-for-vagueness challenge will fail “[w]here the meaning of a term can be adequately determined by examining the plain language definition or the common law definition.” Falcone, 2006 ME 90, ¶ 10 , 902 A.2d 141 .

2018Indeed, a void-for-vagueness challenge will fail “[w]here the meaning of a term can be adequately determined by examining the plain language definition or the common law definition.” Falcone, 2006 ME 90, ¶ 10 , 902 A.2d 141 .

22018–2018
In re Weapons Restriction of J. green
me · 2022
1 sentence

2023In re Weapons Restriction of J., 2022 ME 34 , 'I[ 22, 276 A.3d 510 (quoting State v. Reckards, 2015 ME 31 , 'I[ 4, 113 A.3d 589 ).

12023–2023
Stephen Doane v. Department of Health and Human Services green
me · 2021
2 sentences

2023"A 'void for vagueness' claim is based on the due process protections set forth in the United States and Maine Constitutions and focuses on the need for adequate notice." Doane v. HHS, 2021 ME 28 , 1 17, 250 A.3d 1101 . "[T]hose subject to sanction by law [must] be given fair notice of the standard of conduct to which they can be held accountable." Town ofBaldwin v. Carter, 2002 ME 52 , 1 10, 794 A.2d 62 (quotation marks omitted).

2023"A 'void for vagueness' claim is based on the due process protections set forth in the United States and Maine Constitutions and focuses on the need for adequate notice." Doane v. HHS, 2021 ME 28 , 1 17, 250 A.3d 1101 . "[T]hose subject to sanction by law [must] be given fair notice of the standard of conduct to which they can be held accountable." Town ofBaldwin v. Carter, 2002 ME 52 , 1 10, 794 A.2d 62 (quotation marks omitted).

12023–2023
Stewart Title Guaranty Co. v. State Tax Assessor green
me · 2009
2 sentences

2022Co. v. State Tax Assessor, 2009 ME 8, ¶ 40 , 963 A.2d 169 .

2022Co. v. State Tax Assessor, 2009 ME 8, ¶ 40 , 963 A.2d 169 .

12022–2022
Uliano v. Board of Environmental Protection green
me · 2009
1 sentence

2022Id. ¶ 25 (quoting Kosalka v. Town of Georgetown, 2000 ME 106, ¶ 16 , 752 A.2d 183 ).2 However, “[o]bjective quantification, mathematical Kosalka v. Town of Georgetown addresses an improper delegation of legislative authority and 2 does not address a void-for-vagueness challenge. 2000 ME 106, ¶ 1 , 752 A.2d 183 .

12022–2022
Kosalka v. Town of Georgetown green
me · 2000
2 sentences

2022Id. ¶ 25 (quoting Kosalka v. Town of Georgetown, 2000 ME 106, ¶ 16 , 752 A.2d 183 ).2 However, “[o]bjective quantification, mathematical Kosalka v. Town of Georgetown addresses an improper delegation of legislative authority and 2 does not address a void-for-vagueness challenge. 2000 ME 106, ¶ 1 , 752 A.2d 183 .

2022Id. ¶ 25 (quoting Kosalka v. Town of Georgetown, 2000 ME 106, ¶ 16 , 752 A.2d 183 ).2 However, “[o]bjective quantification, mathematical Kosalka v. Town of Georgetown addresses an improper delegation of legislative authority and 2 does not address a void-for-vagueness challenge. 2000 ME 106, ¶ 1 , 752 A.2d 183 .

12022–2022
Friends of Maine's Mountains v. Board of Environmental Protection green
me · 2013
2 sentences

2022However, we 11 certainty, and absolute precision are not required by either the United States Constitution or Maine Constitution.” Friends of Me.’s Mountains v. Bd. of Env’t Prot., 2013 ME 25, ¶ 21 , 61 A.3d 689 (quotation marks omitted). [¶16] We have held that a standard that required that a proposed activity “not unreasonably interfere with existing scenic, aesthetic, recreational or navigational uses,” 38 M.R.S. § 480-D(1) (2022), was sufficiently definite to not be void for vagueness or unconstitutionally delegate legislative power.

2022However, we 11 certainty, and absolute precision are not required by either the United States Constitution or Maine Constitution.” Friends of Me.’s Mountains v. Bd. of Env’t Prot., 2013 ME 25, ¶ 21 , 61 A.3d 689 (quotation marks omitted). [¶16] We have held that a standard that required that a proposed activity “not unreasonably interfere with existing scenic, aesthetic, recreational or navigational uses,” 38 M.R.S. § 480-D(1) (2022), was sufficiently definite to not be void for vagueness or unconstitutionally delegate legislative power.

12022–2022
Screws v. United States green
scotus · 1945
2 sentences

2015Screws v. United States, 825 U.S. 91 , 104-05, 65 S.Ct. 1031 , 89 L.Ed. 1495 (1945). [¶ 9] In 2003, the First Circuit addressed a federal drug statute in a void-for-vagueness challenge involving a substance known as “khat,” which is a leafy green plant that contains a chemical stimulant known as cathinone when it is first cut.

2015Screws v. United States, 825 U.S. 91 , 104-05, 65 S.Ct. 1031 , 89 L.Ed. 1495 (1945). [¶ 9] In 2003, the First Circuit addressed a federal drug statute in a void-for-vagueness challenge involving a substance known as “khat,” which is a leafy green plant that contains a chemical stimulant known as cathinone when it is first cut.

12015–2015
State v. Preston green
me · 2011
2 sentences

2015Additionally, “[a] statute should define the criminal offense with sufficient definiteness that ordinary people can understand what conduct is prohibited and in a manner that does not encourage arbitrary and discriminatory enforcement.” State v. Preston, 2011 ME 98, ¶ 8 , 26 A.3d 850 (quotation marks omitted).

2015Additionally, “[a] statute should define the criminal offense with sufficient definiteness that ordinary people can understand what conduct is prohibited and in a manner that does not encourage arbitrary and discriminatory enforcement.” State v. Preston, 2011 ME 98, ¶ 8 , 26 A.3d 850 (quotation marks omitted).

12015–2015
United States v. Hassan green
ca2 · 2009
1 sentence

2015In Has-san, the Second Circuit determined that “what saves the statute at issue here — the' CSA as it relates to khat — from constitutional trouble is the fact that scienter is required for a conviction.” 5 Hassan, 578 F.3d at 120 . [¶ 12] We agree with the logic and analysis of the federal circuit courts regarding the scienter requirement in a void-for-vagueness challenge.

12015–2015
State of Maine v. Julia Peck green
me · 2014
2 sentences

2015In a void-for-vagueness challenge, we do not analyze the statute to ascertain if it is valid on its face, but instead assess the challenge “by testing it in the circumstances of the individual case and considering whether the statutory language was sufficiently clear to give the defendant adequate notice that his conduct was proscribed.” State v. Aboda, 2010 ME 125, ¶ 15 , 8 A.3d 719 (quotation marks omitted). [¶ 5] The due process clauses of the United States and Maine Constitutions “require that a statute must provide reasonable and intelligible standards to guide the • future conduct of ind

2015In a void-for-vagueness challenge, we do not analyze the statute to ascertain if it is valid on its face, but instead assess the challenge “by testing it in the circumstances of the individual case and considering whether the statutory language was sufficiently clear to give the defendant adequate notice that his conduct was proscribed.” State v. Aboda, 2010 ME 125, ¶ 15 , 8 A.3d 719 (quotation marks omitted). [¶ 5] The due process clauses of the United States and Maine Constitutions “require that a statute must provide reasonable and intelligible standards to guide the • future conduct of ind

12015–2015
State v. Weeks green
me · 2000
1 sentence

2006"The Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution and Article I, section 6-A of the .Maine Constitution require that criminal defendants be given 'fair notice of the standard of conduct to which they can be held accountable."' State v. Witham, 2005 ME 79 , ,f7, 876 A.2d 40, 42 (quoting State v. Weeks, 2000 ME 171 , ,f7, 76 I A.2d 44, 46) 42 (brackets omitted).

12006–2006
In Re Spring Valley Development green
me · 1973
1 sentence

2000In re Spring Valley Development, 300 A.2d 736 (Me. 1973).

12000–2000
Swed v. Inhabitants of Town of Bar Harbor green
me · 1962
2 sentences

1976(Footnote omitted.) See also Swed v. Inhabitants of Bar Harbor, 158 Me. 220 , 182 A.2d 664 (1962); State v. The Fantastic Fair and Karmil Merchandising Corp., 158 Me. 450, 467-71 , 186 A.2d 352, 363-65 (1961).

1976(Footnote omitted.) See also Swed v. Inhabitants of Bar Harbor, 158 Me. 220 , 182 A.2d 664 (1962); State v. The Fantastic Fair and Karmil Merchandising Corp., 158 Me. 450, 467-71 , 186 A.2d 352, 363-65 (1961).

11976–1976
State v. Fantastic Fair & Karmil Merchandising Corp. green
me · 1961
11976–1976
Boutilier v. Immigration & Naturalization Service green
scotus · 1967
11974–1974

Statutes the citing opinions construe

ME § Me. Rev. Stat. tit. 15, § 2115 (4) ME § Me. Rev. Stat. tit. 15, § 104-A (3)

Counted by distinct opinions that both name this issue and are annotated to the section; sections every opinion cites regardless of issue are not filtered here, so read the counts against the total above.

Where else courts name it

OH 142 (1972–2026) PA 114 (1975–2026) CA 93 (1968–2026) WA 69 (1971–2025) CT 67 (1979–2025) MN 57 (1977–2017) TX 49 (1968–2024) ID 43 (1977–2025) CO 43 (1978–2024) MI 40 (1967–2026) NY 38 (1973–2025) FL 36 (1980–2019) AL 32 (1983–2018) IA 28 (1986–2025) MD 25 (1978–2020) NE 25 (1985–2024) MO 24 (1980–2022) ME 21 (1974–2024) NM 21 (1983–2024) ND 20 (1984–2025) WI 19 (1972–2024) NV 19 (1992–2024) VA 18 (1987–2024) UT 17 (1991–2018) VT 17 (1989–2020) KY 17 (1987–2026) MA 16 (1975–2025) AR 15 (1980–2026) GA 15 (1983–2020) NJ 15 (1968–2021) MS 13 (1976–2021) MT 12 (1985–2020) IL 11 (1978–2021) OK 11 (1994–2018) LA 9 (1986–2023) KS 9 (1989–2026) NC 8 (1999–2026) SC 8 (2007–2025) AK 7 (1969–2024) IN 7 (1992–2024) VI 6 (1995–2015) TN 6 (1996–2025) DC 6 (1975–2023) SD 5 (1983–2015) HI 5 (1981–2016) AZ 5 (1983–2017) RI 4 (1996–2015) OR 3 (1976–1980) WV 3 (1985–2022) DE 2 (1991–1998) GU 2 (2021–2024)

Opinions by the citing court's state. A doctrine retained in one state and abandoned in another shows up here as a year span that stalls.

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