reasonable doubt error (Rhode Island) · Go Syfert
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reasonable doubt error in Rhode Island

36 Rhode Island opinions name it 2 courts 1971–2026 6 in the last five years

The cases below were cited by Rhode Island courts in a sentence that names this issue. Sides come from how each citing opinion treated the case (Syfertize flag on that citation), so a case can appear on both: that is where the law is contested. A red or yellow chip is the case's own overall treatment.

Followed or applied (29)

CaseFollowedCited
Chapman v. Californiared
scotus · 1967 · cited in 13 Rhode Island opinions naming this issue, 1971–2025
2 sentences

2025Nonetheless, I will conclude this dissent by indicating that, while I do not doubt their good faith, I am somewhat surprised that none of my colleagues shares my conviction that barring defense counsel from questioning Emily in the manner he proposed cannot be called harmless error—in view of the fact that the law requires that, in order to hold that a particular error was harmless, an appellate court must so determine “beyond a reasonable doubt.” Chapman, 386 U.S. at 24; see also Gonzalez, 136 A.3d at 1156 (“The harmless error principle specifically requires ‘the beneficiary of a constitution

2025Nonetheless, I will conclude this dissent by indicating that, while I do not doubt their good faith, I am somewhat surprised that none of my colleagues shares my conviction that barring defense counsel from questioning Emily in the manner he proposed cannot be called harmless error—in view of the fact that the law requires that, in order to hold that a particular error was harmless, an appellate court must so determine “beyond a reasonable doubt.” Chapman, 386 U.S. at 24; see also Gonzalez, 136 A.3d at 1156 (“The harmless error principle specifically requires ‘the beneficiary of a constitution

713
State v. Thomas Mercuriogreen
ri · 2014 · cited in 6 Rhode Island opinions naming this issue, 2016–2026
2 sentences

2024“In order to meet the harmless-error test, there must be proof beyond a reasonable doubt that the error complained of did not contribute to the verdict obtained.” White, 296 A.3d at 706 (quoting Mercurio, 89 A.3d at 822 ).

2024“In order to meet the harmless-error test, there must be proof beyond a reasonable doubt that the error complained of did not contribute to the verdict obtained.” White, 296 A.3d at 706 (quoting Mercurio, 89 A.3d at 822 ).

66
State v. Smithgreen
ri · 1982 · cited in 6 Rhode Island opinions naming this issue, 1989–2023
2 sentences

2023That issue we address in the next section of this opinion. - 28 - proof ‘beyond a reasonable doubt that the error complained of did not contribute to the verdict obtained.’” State v. Mercurio, 89 A.3d 813, 822 (R.I. 2014) (quoting State v. Smith, 446 A.2d 1035, 1036 (R.I. 1982)).

2023“In order to meet the harmless-error test, there must be proof beyond a reasonable doubt that the error complained of did not contribute to the verdict obtained.” State v. Mercurio, 89 A.3d 813, 822 (R.I. 2014) (quoting State v. Smith, 446 A.2d 1035, 1036 (R.I. 1982)).

66
State v. Bustamantegreen
ri · 2000 · cited in 4 Rhode Island opinions naming this issue, 2014–2024
2 sentences

2024This Court - 16 - has listed several factors to be considered in determining whether an error was harmless, “including the relative degree of importance of the witness testimony to the prosecution’s case, the presence or absence of evidence corroborating or contradicting the testimony of the witness on material points, the extent of cross-examination otherwise permitted, and the overall strength of the prosecution’s case.” Mercurio, 89 A.3d at 822-23 (deletions omitted) (quoting State v. Bustamante, 756 A.2d 758, 766 (R.I. 2000)).

2024This Court - 16 - has listed several factors to be considered in determining whether an error was harmless, “including the relative degree of importance of the witness testimony to the prosecution’s case, the presence or absence of evidence corroborating or contradicting the testimony of the witness on material points, the extent of cross-examination otherwise permitted, and the overall strength of the prosecution’s case.” Mercurio, 89 A.3d at 822-23 (deletions omitted) (quoting State v. Bustamante, 756 A.2d 758, 766 (R.I. 2000)).

44
In Re WINSHIPgreen
scotus · 1970 · cited in 3 Rhode Island opinions naming this issue, 1989–2004
2 sentences

2004XI Due Process Rights The defendant argues that his due process rights were violated because the trial justice did not adequately instruct the jury on the element of sexual gratification, and because the state failed to prove every element of the first-and second-degree sexual-assault counts beyond a reasonable doubt in violation of the United States Supreme Court standard set forth in In re Winship, 397 U.S. 358, 364 , 90 S.Ct. 1068 , 25 L.Ed.2d 368 (1970).

2004XI Due Process Rights The defendant argues that his due process rights were violated because the trial justice did not adequately instruct the jury on the element of sexual gratification, and because the state failed to prove every element of the first-and second-degree sexual-assault counts beyond a reasonable doubt in violation of the United States Supreme Court standard set forth in In re Winship, 397 U.S. 358, 364 , 90 S.Ct. 1068 , 25 L.Ed.2d 368 (1970).

23
State v. Tony Gonzalezgreen
ri · 2016 · cited in 2 Rhode Island opinions naming this issue, 2017–2025
2 sentences

2025Nonetheless, I will conclude this dissent by indicating that, while I do not doubt their good faith, I am somewhat surprised that none of my colleagues shares my conviction that barring defense counsel from questioning Emily in the manner he proposed cannot be called harmless error—in view of the fact that the law requires that, in order to hold that a particular error was harmless, an appellate court must so determine “beyond a reasonable doubt.” Chapman, 386 U.S. at 24; see also Gonzalez, 136 A.3d at 1156 (“The harmless error principle specifically requires ‘the beneficiary of a constitution

2025Nonetheless, I will conclude this dissent by indicating that, while I do not doubt their good faith, I am somewhat surprised that none of my colleagues shares my conviction that barring defense counsel from questioning Emily in the manner he proposed cannot be called harmless error—in view of the fact that the law requires that, in order to hold that a particular error was harmless, an appellate court must so determine “beyond a reasonable doubt.” Chapman, 386 U.S. at 24 ; see also Gonzalez, 136 A.3d at 1156 (“The harmless error principle specifically requires ‘the beneficiary of a constitutio

22
United States v. Sassogreen
ca1 · 2012 · cited in 2 Rhode Island opinions naming this issue, 2016–2016
2 sentences

2016United States v. Sasso, 695 F.3d 25, 29 (1st Cir. 2012); see United States v. Gray, 780 F.3d 458, 469 (1st Cir.2015).

2016United States v. Sasso, 695 F.3d 25, 29 (1st Cir. 2012); see United States v. Gray, 780 F.3d 458, 469 (1st Cir. 2015).

22
United States v. Graygreen
ca1 · 2015 · cited in 2 Rhode Island opinions naming this issue, 2016–2016
2 sentences

2016United States v. Sasso, 695 F.3d 25, 29 (1st Cir. 2012); see United States v. Gray, 780 F.3d 458, 469 (1st Cir.2015).

2016United States v. Sasso, 695 F.3d 25, 29 (1st Cir. 2012); see United States v. Gray, 780 F.3d 458, 469 (1st Cir. 2015).

22
State v. Thorpegreen
ri · 1981 · cited in 4 Rhode Island opinions naming this issue, 1982–2009
2 sentences

2009See Thorpe, 429 A.2d at 790 n. 4 (“Hereafter; trial justices, in discussing the reasonable-doubt doctrine, shall omit any reference to ‘substantial doubt.’” (Emphasis added.)).

1987In that case, we stated that “trial justices, in discussing the reasonable-doubt doctrine, shall omit any reference to ‘substantial doubt.’ ” Id.

14
State v. Roger Watkinsgreen
ri · 2014 · cited in 1 Rhode Island opinions naming this issue, 2023–2023
1 sentence

2023Cumulative evidence is evidence that tends “to prove the same point to which other evidence has been offered.” Benitez, 266 A.3d at 1229 (quoting Lynch, 854 A.2d at 1032 ); see also Watkins, 92 A.3d at 189 .

11
State v. Tavaresgreen
ri · 1991 · cited in 1 Rhode Island opinions naming this issue, 2016–2016
1 sentence

2016Our longstanding rule prohibiting credibility testimony is “that no witness, expert or otherwise, may testify that another witness is lying or faking.” State v. Tavares, 590 A.2d 867, 870 (R.I.1991).

11
People v. Adamsgreen
ill · 2012 · cited in 1 Rhode Island opinions naming this issue, 2014–2014
2 sentences

2014See United States v. McMath, 559 F.3d 657, 668 (7th Cir.2009) (holding that remark did not jeopardize the fairness or integrity of the trial); United States v. Torres-Galindo, 206 F.3d 136, 142-43 (1st Cir.2000) (holding that prosecutor’s comment was harmless); People v. Adams, 356 Ill.Dec. 725 , *1021 962 N.E.2d 410, 416 (2012) (holding that comments did not amount to plain error); Spain v. State, 386 Md. 145 , 872 A.2d 25, 34 (2005) (court was “convinced beyond a reasonable doubt that the error in no way influenced the verdict”). 7 .

2014See United States v. McMath, 559 F.3d 657, 668 (7th Cir.2009) (holding that remark did not jeopardize the fairness or integrity of the trial); United States v. Torres-Galindo, 206 F.3d 136, 142-43 (1st Cir.2000) (holding that prosecutor’s comment was harmless); People v. Adams, 356 Ill.Dec. 725 , *1021 962 N.E.2d 410, 416 (2012) (holding that comments did not amount to plain error); Spain v. State, 386 Md. 145 , 872 A.2d 25, 34 (2005) (court was “convinced beyond a reasonable doubt that the error in no way influenced the verdict”). 7 .

11
Spain v. Stategreen
md · 2005 · cited in 1 Rhode Island opinions naming this issue, 2014–2014
2 sentences

2014See United States v. McMath, 559 F.3d 657, 668 (7th Cir.2009) (holding that remark did not jeopardize the fairness or integrity of the trial); United States v. Torres-Galindo, 206 F.3d 136, 142-43 (1st Cir.2000) (holding that prosecutor’s comment was harmless); People v. Adams, 356 Ill.Dec. 725 , *1021 962 N.E.2d 410, 416 (2012) (holding that comments did not amount to plain error); Spain v. State, 386 Md. 145 , 872 A.2d 25, 34 (2005) (court was “convinced beyond a reasonable doubt that the error in no way influenced the verdict”). 7 .

2014See United States v. McMath, 559 F.3d 657, 668 (7th Cir.2009) (holding that remark did not jeopardize the fairness or integrity of the trial); United States v. Torres-Galindo, 206 F.3d 136, 142-43 (1st Cir.2000) (holding that prosecutor’s comment was harmless); People v. Adams, 356 Ill.Dec. 725 , *1021 962 N.E.2d 410, 416 (2012) (holding that comments did not amount to plain error); Spain v. State, 386 Md. 145 , 872 A.2d 25, 34 (2005) (court was “convinced beyond a reasonable doubt that the error in no way influenced the verdict”). 7 .

11
United States v. McMathgreen
ca7 · 2009 · cited in 1 Rhode Island opinions naming this issue, 2014–2014
1 sentence

2014See United States v. McMath, 559 F.3d 657, 668 (7th Cir.2009) (holding that remark did not jeopardize the fairness or integrity of the trial); United States v. Torres-Galindo, 206 F.3d 136, 142-43 (1st Cir.2000) (holding that prosecutor’s comment was harmless); People v. Adams, 356 Ill.Dec. 725 , *1021 962 N.E.2d 410, 416 (2012) (holding that comments did not amount to plain error); Spain v. State, 386 Md. 145 , 872 A.2d 25, 34 (2005) (court was “convinced beyond a reasonable doubt that the error in no way influenced the verdict”). 7 .

11
United States v. Ricardo Torres-Galindo, A/K/A Ricky Silva, United States v. Ricardo L. Guilbe-Sanchez, A/K/A Richard La Sombragreen
ca1 · 2000 · cited in 1 Rhode Island opinions naming this issue, 2014–2014
1 sentence

2014See United States v. McMath, 559 F.3d 657, 668 (7th Cir.2009) (holding that remark did not jeopardize the fairness or integrity of the trial); United States v. Torres-Galindo, 206 F.3d 136, 142-43 (1st Cir.2000) (holding that prosecutor’s comment was harmless); People v. Adams, 356 Ill.Dec. 725 , *1021 962 N.E.2d 410, 416 (2012) (holding that comments did not amount to plain error); Spain v. State, 386 Md. 145 , 872 A.2d 25, 34 (2005) (court was “convinced beyond a reasonable doubt that the error in no way influenced the verdict”). 7 .

11
State v. McGuygreen
ri · 2003 · cited in 1 Rhode Island opinions naming this issue, 2009–2009
1 sentence

2009“It is incumbent upon a trial justice to instruct the jury on the law that applies to each issue that the parties raise at trial.” State v. Garcia, 883 A.2d 1131, 1137 (R.I.2005) (citing State v. McGuy, 841 A.2d 1109, 1112 (R.I.2003)).

11
State v. Garciagreen
ri · 2005 · cited in 1 Rhode Island opinions naming this issue, 2009–2009
1 sentence

2009“It is incumbent upon a trial justice to instruct the jury on the law that applies to each issue that the parties raise at trial.” State v. Garcia, 883 A.2d 1131, 1137 (R.I.2005) (citing State v. McGuy, 841 A.2d 1109, 1112 (R.I.2003)).

11
State v. Merciergreen
ri · 1980 · cited in 1 Rhode Island opinions naming this issue, 2002–2002
2 sentences

2002In proving its case under § 11—5— 2(b), the state may satisfy the “dangerous weapon” element by establishing either that the implement used in the assault was a dangerous weapon per se, such as a knife or loaded gun, State v. Mercier, 415 A.2d 465, 466 (R.I.1980), or that the implement, if not a dangerous weapon per se, “was used in such a way that it had the capability of producing serious bodily harm.” Id. at 467 .

2002In proving its case under § 11—5— 2(b), the state may satisfy the “dangerous weapon” element by establishing either that the implement used in the assault was a dangerous weapon per se, such as a knife or loaded gun, State v. Mercier, 415 A.2d 465, 466 (R.I.1980), or that the implement, if not a dangerous weapon per se, “was used in such a way that it had the capability of producing serious bodily harm.” Id. at 467 .

11
Ogden v. Saundersgreen
scotus · 1827 · cited in 1 Rhode Island opinions naming this issue, 2001–2001
1 sentence

2001The proof beyond a reasonable doubt standard for challenges to the constitutionality of a statute under the United States Constitution was stated by Justice Washington in Ogden v. Saunders, 25 U.S. ,(12 Wheat.) 213, 270, 6 L.Ed. 606, 625 (1827).

11
Jackson v. Virginiared
scotus · 1979 · cited in 1 Rhode Island opinions naming this issue, 1998–1998
2 sentences

1998(Emphases added.) Nearly ten years after its pronouncement in Winship , the United States Supreme Court observed that the reasonable-doubt standard “impress[es] upon the factfinder the need to reach a subjective state of near certitude of guilt of the accused.” Jackson v. Virginia, 443 U.S. 307, 315 , 99 S.Ct. 2781, 2787 , 61 L.Ed.2d 560, 571 (1979).

1998(Emphases added.) Nearly ten years after its pronouncement in Winship , the United States Supreme Court observed that the reasonable-doubt standard “impress[es] upon the factfinder the need to reach a subjective state of near certitude of guilt of the accused.” Jackson v. Virginia, 443 U.S. 307, 315 , 99 S.Ct. 2781, 2787 , 61 L.Ed.2d 560, 571 (1979).

11
Victor v. Nebraskagreen
scotus · 1994 · cited in 1 Rhode Island opinions naming this issue, 1998–1998
2 sentences

1998Because our examination of the reasonable doubt instruction in its entirety convinces us that “‘taken as a whole, the instruction[] correctly conveyed the concept of reasonable doubt to the jury,’ ” State v. Firth, 708 A.2d 526, 533 (R.I.1998) (quoting Victor v. Nebraska, 511 U.S. 1, 22 , 114 S.Ct. 1239, 1251 , 127 L.Ed.2d 583, 601 (1994)), we conclude that the reasonable doubt instruction was not erroneous.

1998Because our examination of the reasonable doubt instruction in its entirety convinces us that “‘taken as a whole, the instruction[] correctly conveyed the concept of reasonable doubt to the jury,’ ” State v. Firth, 708 A.2d 526, 533 (R.I.1998) (quoting Victor v. Nebraska, 511 U.S. 1, 22 , 114 S.Ct. 1239, 1251 , 127 L.Ed.2d 583, 601 (1994)), we conclude that the reasonable doubt instruction was not erroneous.

11
State v. Firthgreen
ri · 1998 · cited in 1 Rhode Island opinions naming this issue, 1998–1998
1 sentence

1998Because our examination of the reasonable doubt instruction in its entirety convinces us that “‘taken as a whole, the instruction[] correctly conveyed the concept of reasonable doubt to the jury,’ ” State v. Firth, 708 A.2d 526, 533 (R.I.1998) (quoting Victor v. Nebraska, 511 U.S. 1, 22 , 114 S.Ct. 1239, 1251 , 127 L.Ed.2d 583, 601 (1994)), we conclude that the reasonable doubt instruction was not erroneous.

11
State v. Myersgreen
wis · 1990 · cited in 1 Rhode Island opinions naming this issue, 1992–1992
2 sentences

1992State v. Myers, 158 Wis.2d 356, 363 , 461 N.W.2d 777, 780 (1990).

1992State v. Myers, 158 Wis.2d 356, 363 , 461 N.W.2d 777, 780 (1990).

11
State v. Ballardgreen
ri · 1982 · cited in 1 Rhode Island opinions naming this issue, 1983–1983
11
State v. Getergreen
ri · 1971 · cited in 1 Rhode Island opinions naming this issue, 1982–1982
11
State v. Duffygreen
ri · 1973 · cited in 1 Rhode Island opinions naming this issue, 1982–1982
11
Connolly v. Commonwealthgreen
mass · 1979 · cited in 1 Rhode Island opinions naming this issue, 1980–1980
11
Nicholas A. Palmigiano v. Robert E. Houlegreen
ca1 · 1980 · cited in 1 Rhode Island opinions naming this issue, 1980–1980
11
Lego v. Twomeygreen
scotus · 1972 · cited in 1 Rhode Island opinions naming this issue, 1972–1972
11

Distinguished, questioned or overruled (0)

CaseNegativeCited
No negative-treatment citations attached to this issue in Rhode Island. Read the followed side critically anyway.

Also cited on this issue (9)

CaseCitedYears
Neder v. United States green
scotus · 1999
2 sentences

2002Such an error will be deemed harmless if “it appears ‘beyond a reasonable doubt that the error complained of did not contribute to the verdict obtained.’ ” Id. at 15 , 119 S.Ct. at 1837 , 144 L.Ed.2d at 51 (quoting Chapman v. California, 386 U.S. 18, 24 , 87 S.Ct. 824, 828 , 17 L.Ed.2d 705, 710 (1967)).

2002Such an error will be deemed harmless if “it appears ‘beyond a reasonable doubt that the error complained of did not contribute to the verdict obtained.’ ” Id. at 15 , 119 S.Ct. at 1837 , 144 L.Ed.2d at 51 (quoting Chapman v. California, 386 U.S. 18, 24 , 87 S.Ct. 824, 828 , 17 L.Ed.2d 705, 710 (1967)).

22002–2002
State v. Lynch green
ri · 2004
1 sentence

2023Cumulative evidence is evidence that tends “to prove the same point to which other evidence has been offered.” Benitez, 266 A.3d at 1229 (quoting Lynch, 854 A.2d at 1032 ); see also Watkins, 92 A.3d at 189 .

12023–2023
Arizona v. Fulminante green
scotus · 1991
1 sentence

2005Sullivan, supra, at 281-282 (citing Arizona v. Fulminante, 499 U.S. 279 , 307-308 (1991)).

12005–2005
Sullivan v. Louisiana green
scotus · 1993
2 sentences

2005In Sullivan v. Louisiana, 508 U.S. 275 (1993), the Supreme Court re-emphasized that a defective instruction relative to proof beyond a reasonable doubt was an error infecting the structure of the trial and thus could never be considered "harmless." In effect, such a structural fault within the trial — unlike errors that are not structural and "which may therefore be quantitatively assessed in the context of other evidence presented" — deprives the defendant of his right to trial by jury.

2005Sullivan, supra, at 281-282 (citing Arizona v. Fulminante, 499 U.S. 279 , 307-308 (1991)).

12005–2005
United States v. Richard Anglada green
ca2 · 1975
1 sentence

2001Therefore, we hold that although the trial justice did not commit reversible error by adverting to the scale metaphor in defining reasonable doubt to the jury, his “characterization of the standard as quantitative rather than qualitative * * * might better have been omitted.” Anglada, 524 F.2d at 300 .

12001–2001
French v. United States green
scotus · 1984
1 sentence

2001That burden never shifts to the defendant. * * * Proof beyond a reasonable doubt is proof that leaves you firmly convinced of the defendant’s guilt.” Given these repeated references to the correct reasonable doubt standard throughout the trial, we hold that the charge, read as a whole, was “sufficient to dispel any possible confusion or misunderstanding arising from the reasonable doubt definition,” id., notwithstanding the court’s potentially misleading use of the “real possibility” phrasing at one point in the charge.

12001–2001
Cupp v. Naughten green
scotus · 1973
2 sentences

1998Always bear in mind that a defendant in a criminal case is not required to prove his innocence, nor is he required to offer evidence of any kind, nor to disprove or explain anything.” (Emphasis added.) Addressing a claim similar to that raised by defendant here, the First Circuit Court of Appeals concluded: “Although we think that the [‘real possibility of innocence’ language] might possibly engender some confusion as to the burden of proof if it stood by itself, it is clear that when the charge is read as a whole, there was no error. ‘[A] single instruction to a jury may not be judged in arti

1998Always bear in mind that a defendant in a criminal case is not required to prove his innocence, nor is he required to offer evidence of any kind, nor to disprove or explain anything.” (Emphasis added.) Addressing a claim similar to that raised by defendant here, the First Circuit Court of Appeals concluded: “Although we think that the [‘real possibility of innocence’ language] might possibly engender some confusion as to the burden of proof if it stood by itself, it is clear that when the charge is read as a whole, there was no error. ‘[A] single instruction to a jury may not be judged in arti

11998–1998
Barnes v. United States green
scotus · 1973
11980–1980
Fahy v. Connecticut green
scotus · 1963
11971–1971

Statutes the citing opinions construe

RI § R.I. Gen. Laws § 11-5-2 (5) RI § R.I. Gen. Laws § 11-37-2 (4) RI § R.I. Gen. Laws § 11-23-1 (3) RI § R.I. Gen. Laws § 11-37-8.1 (3) RI § R.I. Gen. Laws § 11-37-8.2 (3) RI § R.I. Gen. Laws § 11-37-8.3 (3) RI § R.I. Gen. Laws § 11-47-8 (3) RI § R.I. Gen. Laws § 11-5-1 (3) RI § R.I. Gen. Laws § 11-5-3 (3)

Counted by distinct opinions that both name this issue and are annotated to the section; sections every opinion cites regardless of issue are not filtered here, so read the counts against the total above.

Where else courts name it

CA 1862 (1883–2026) TX 1722 (1911–2026) FL 748 (1973–2026) IL 678 (1905–2026) PA 508 (1919–2026) KS 495 (1925–2026) WA 404 (1930–2026) TN 357 (1970–2026) AZ 282 (1965–2026) GA 252 (1914–2026) OH 201 (1968–2026) ID 185 (1975–2026) NY 184 (1956–2024) CO 177 (1949–2026) LA 176 (1976–2026) MD 171 (1966–2026) MA 158 (1972–2026) HI 156 (1950–2026) IN 154 (1891–2026) WI 151 (1977–2026) MS 145 (1924–2026) MN 137 (1953–2026) AL 137 (1916–2024) CT 129 (1955–2025) MO 107 (1889–2023) NJ 105 (1967–2026) SC 103 (1976–2026) DC 101 (1969–2026) MI 92 (1968–2026) NC 86 (1898–2023) IA 81 (1878–2024) KY 76 (1922–2026) NH 74 (1976–2025) UT 73 (1970–2026) OR 70 (1894–2026) NV 69 (1967–2026) AR 68 (1908–2025) VA 65 (1919–2026) NM 53 (1947–2025) WV 53 (1912–2023) DE 42 (1979–2026) SD 42 (1911–2022) OK 39 (1973–2025) RI 36 (1971–2026) ME 32 (1971–2024) MT 31 (1974–2024) VT 25 (1899–2026) ND 23 (1977–2021) WY 22 (1974–2025) AK 20 (1975–2025) NE 19 (1968–2022) VI 3 (1995–2015) GU 2 (2025–2025)

Opinions by the citing court's state. A doctrine retained in one state and abandoned in another shows up here as a year span that stalls.

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