preponderance of the evidence standard (Hawaii) · Go Syfert
← Hawaii issues

preponderance of the evidence standard in Hawaii

27 Hawaii opinions name it 2 courts 1989–2026 7 in the last five years

The cases below were cited by Hawaii courts in a sentence that names this issue. Sides come from how each citing opinion treated the case (Syfertize flag on that citation), so a case can appear on both: that is where the law is contested. A red or yellow chip is the case's own overall treatment.

Followed or applied (33)

CaseFollowedCited
Bourjaily v. United Statesgreen
scotus · 1987 · cited in 2 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 2020–2025
2 sentences

2025“Where the preliminary facts necessary for the admissibility of evidence are disputed, the 26 *** FOR PUBLICATION IN WEST’S HAWAI‘I REPORTS AND PACIFIC REPORTER *** offering party has the burden to prove facts supporting admission by a preponderance of the evidence.” State v. McGriff, 76 Hawaiʻi 148, 157, 871 P.2d 782, 791 (1994) (citing Bourjaily v. United States, 483 U.S. 171, 176 (1987)); Gano, 92 Hawaiʻi at 172, 988 P.2d at 1164 (reaffirming the preponderance of the evidence standard applied in McGriff).

2025“Where the preliminary facts necessary for the admissibility of evidence are disputed, the 26 *** FOR PUBLICATION IN WEST’S HAWAI‘I REPORTS AND PACIFIC REPORTER *** offering party has the burden to prove facts supporting admission by a preponderance of the evidence.” State v. McGriff, 76 Hawaiʻi 148, 157, 871 P.2d 782, 791 (1994) (citing Bourjaily v. United States, 483 U.S. 171, 176 (1987)); Gano, 92 Hawaiʻi at 172, 988 P.2d at 1164 (reaffirming the preponderance of the evidence standard applied in McGriff).

22
Orkin Exterminating Co., Inc. v. Trainagreen
ind · 1986 · cited in 2 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 1989–2004
2 sentences

2004Orkin Exterminating Co., Inc. v. Traina, 486 N.E.2d 1019, 1022 (Ind.1986).

2004Orkin Exterminating Co., Inc. v. Traina, 486 N.E.2d 1019, 1022 (Ind.1986).

22
State v. McGriffgreen
haw · 1994 · cited in 3 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 2020–2025
2 sentences

2025“Where the preliminary facts necessary for the admissibility of evidence are disputed, the 26 *** FOR PUBLICATION IN WEST’S HAWAI‘I REPORTS AND PACIFIC REPORTER *** offering party has the burden to prove facts supporting admission by a preponderance of the evidence.” State v. McGriff, 76 Hawaiʻi 148, 157, 871 P.2d 782, 791 (1994) (citing Bourjaily v. United States, 483 U.S. 171, 176 (1987)); Gano, 92 Hawaiʻi at 172, 988 P.2d at 1164 (reaffirming the preponderance of the evidence standard applied in McGriff).

2025“Where the preliminary facts necessary for the admissibility of evidence are disputed, the 26 *** FOR PUBLICATION IN WEST’S HAWAI‘I REPORTS AND PACIFIC REPORTER *** offering party has the burden to prove facts supporting admission by a preponderance of the evidence.” State v. McGriff, 76 Hawaiʻi 148, 157, 871 P.2d 782, 791 (1994) (citing Bourjaily v. United States, 483 U.S. 171, 176 (1987)); Gano, 92 Hawaiʻi at 172, 988 P.2d at 1164 (reaffirming the preponderance of the evidence standard applied in McGriff).

13
Addington v. Texasgreen
scotus · 1979 · cited in 3 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 1997–2025
2 sentences

2025On the other hand, the preponderance of the evidence standard applies where society has a minimal concern with the outcome of the suit, and the parties should thus "share the risk of error in roughly equal fashion." Id. at 423.

2025On the other hand, the preponderance of the evidence standard applies where society has a minimal concern with the outcome of the suit, and the parties should thus "share the risk of error in roughly equal fashion." Id. at 423 .

13
Masaki v. General Motors Corp.green
haw · 1989 · cited in 3 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 1997–1999
2 sentences

1999In contrast, the preponderance of the evidence standard is defined as proof which leads the trier of fact to find that “the existence of the contested fact is more probable than its nonexistence.” Masaki, 71 Haw. at 14 , 780 P.2d at 574 (citation omitted).

1999In contrast, the preponderance of the evidence standard is defined as proof which leads the trier of fact to find that “the existence of the contested fact is more probable than its nonexistence.” Masaki, 71 Haw. at 14 , 780 P.2d at 574 (citation omitted).

13
State v. DeMellogreen
hawapp · 2013 · cited in 2 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 2015–2020
2 sentences

2020See State v. Demello, 130 Hawai#i 332, 342-45, 310 P.3d 1033, 1043-46 (App. 2013) (Demello I), reversed in part on other grounds by State v. Demello, 136 Hawai#i 193, 361 P.3d 420 (2015) (Demello II).

2015Id. at 342-345 , 310 P.3d at 1042-46 . .

12
United States v. Arvizugreen
scotus · 2002 · cited in 2 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 2007–2010
2 sentences

2010In addressing reasonable suspicion for an investigatory stop, the Hawai'i Supreme Court has favorably quoted language from the United States Supreme Court that "the likelihood of criminal activity need not rise to the level of probable cause, and it falls considerably short of satisfying a preponderance of the evidence standard." State v. Soillner, 116 Hawai'i 351, 358 , 173 P.3d 498, 505 (2007) (quoting United States v. Arvizu, 534 U.S. 266, 273-74 (2002)).

2010Moreover, "[a] determination that reasonable suspicion exists... need not rule out the possibility of innocent conduct." Spillner, 116 Hawai'i at 358 , 173 P.3d at 505 (quoting Arvizu, 534 U.S. at 277 ) .

12
In re the Guardianship of Doegreen
hawapp · 2004 · cited in 1 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 2026–2026
2 sentences

2026See In re Guardianship of Doe, 106 Hawaiʻi 75, 78, 101 P.3d 684, 687 (App. 2004) (applying a preponderance of the evidence standard to fitness in guardianship proceedings).

2026See In re Guardianship of Doe, 106 Hawaiʻi 75, 78, 101 P.3d 684, 687 (App. 2004) (applying a preponderance of the evidence standard to fitness in guardianship proceedings).

11
In Re DISgreen
colo · 2011 · cited in 1 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 2026–2026
2 sentences

2026In re D.I.S., 249 P.3d at 786 (“[T]he Troxel presumption and the court’s statutory role in considering what is in the child’s best interests can be accommodated through the guardian bearing the burden of proof by a preponderance of the evidence.”).

2026In re D.I.S., 249 P.3d at 786 (“[T]he Troxel presumption and the court’s statutory role in considering what is in the child’s best interests can be accommodated through the guardian bearing the burden of proof by a preponderance of the evidence.”).

11
City of Lake Elmo v. Metropolitan Councilgreen
minn · 2004 · cited in 1 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 2025–2025
1 sentence

2025See City of Lake Elmo, 685 N.W.2d at 4 .

11
Seherr-thoss v. Teton County Board of County Commissionersgreen
wyo · 2014 · cited in 1 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 2025–2025
2 sentences

2025Comm’rs, 329 P.3d 936, 944 (Wyo. 2014) (“The normal standard of proof in administrative hearings is the preponderance-of-the-evidence standard.”); In re Black Hills Power, Inc., 889 N.W.2d 631, 636 (S.D. 2016) (“[T]he burden of proof for administrative hearings is preponderance of the evidence.”).

2025Comm’rs, 329 P.3d 936, 944 (Wyo. 2014) (“The normal standard of proof in administrative hearings is the preponderance-of-the-evidence standard.”); In re Black Hills Power, Inc., 889 N.W.2d 631, 636 (S.D. 2016) (“[T]he burden of proof for administrative hearings is preponderance of the evidence.”).

11
Woodruff v. Kealegreen
haw · 1981 · cited in 1 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 2025–2025
2 sentences

2025The clear and convincing standard of proof serves "to protect particularly important individual interests in various civil cases." Woodruff v. Keale, 64 Haw. 85, 100, 637 P.2d 760, 770 (1981) (quoting Addington v. Texas, 441 U.S. 418, 424 (1979)).

2025The clear and convincing standard of proof serves "to protect particularly important individual interests in various civil cases." Woodruff v. Keale, 64 Haw. 85, 100, 637 P.2d 760, 770 (1981) (quoting Addington v. Texas, 441 U.S. 418, 424 (1979)).

11
State v. Ganogreen
haw · 1999 · cited in 1 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 2025–2025
2 sentences

2025“Where the preliminary facts necessary for the admissibility of evidence are disputed, the 26 *** FOR PUBLICATION IN WEST’S HAWAI‘I REPORTS AND PACIFIC REPORTER *** offering party has the burden to prove facts supporting admission by a preponderance of the evidence.” State v. McGriff, 76 Hawaiʻi 148, 157, 871 P.2d 782, 791 (1994) (citing Bourjaily v. United States, 483 U.S. 171, 176 (1987)); Gano, 92 Hawaiʻi at 172, 988 P.2d at 1164 (reaffirming the preponderance of the evidence standard applied in McGriff).

2025“Where the preliminary facts necessary for the admissibility of evidence are disputed, the 26 *** FOR PUBLICATION IN WEST’S HAWAI‘I REPORTS AND PACIFIC REPORTER *** offering party has the burden to prove facts supporting admission by a preponderance of the evidence.” State v. McGriff, 76 Hawaiʻi 148, 157, 871 P.2d 782, 791 (1994) (citing Bourjaily v. United States, 483 U.S. 171, 176 (1987)); Gano, 92 Hawaiʻi at 172, 988 P.2d at 1164 (reaffirming the preponderance of the evidence standard applied in McGriff).

11
Application of Black Hills Powergreen
sd · 2016 · cited in 1 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 2025–2025
2 sentences

2025Comm’rs, 329 P.3d 936, 944 (Wyo. 2014) (“The normal standard of proof in administrative hearings is the preponderance-of-the-evidence standard.”); In re Black Hills Power, Inc., 889 N.W.2d 631, 636 (S.D. 2016) (“[T]he burden of proof for administrative hearings is preponderance of the evidence.”).

2025Comm’rs, 329 P.3d 936, 944 (Wyo. 2014) (“The normal standard of proof in administrative hearings is the preponderance-of-the-evidence standard.”); In re Black Hills Power, Inc., 889 N.W.2d 631, 636 (S.D. 2016) (“[T]he burden of proof for administrative hearings is preponderance of the evidence.”).

11
DW Aina Le'a Development, LLC v. Bridge Aina Le'a, LLC.green
haw · 2014 · cited in 1 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 2025–2025
1 sentence

2025Under HRS § 91-14(f) (Supp. 2019), judicial review of an agency appeal is typically "confined to the administrative record." 10 DW Aina Le‘a Dev., LLC v. Bridge Aina Le‘a, LLC., 134 Hawai‘i 187, 216, 339 P.3d 685, 714 (2014).

11
Adams v. CDM Media USA, Inc.green
haw · 2015 · cited in 1 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 2024–2024
1 sentence

2024See Adams, 135 Hawai‘i at 13, 346 P.3d at 82 .

11
State v. DeMello.green
haw · 2015 · cited in 1 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 2020–2020
1 sentence

2020See State v. Demello, 130 Hawai#i 332, 342-45, 310 P.3d 1033, 1043-46 (App. 2013) (Demello I), reversed in part on other grounds by State v. Demello, 136 Hawai#i 193, 361 P.3d 420 (2015) (Demello II).

11
State v. Maganisgreen
haw · 2005 · cited in 1 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 2017–2017
2 sentences

2017State v. Maganis, 109 Hawaii 84, 86-88, 123 P.3d 679, 681-83 (2005) (rejecting ICA’s interpretation of probable cause as requiring a lesser quantum of proof than the preponderance of the evidence standard as an “unreasonabl[e]” “attempt to ‘water down’” the requirement).

2017State v. Maganis, 109 Hawaii 84, 86-88, 123 P.3d 679, 681-83 (2005) (rejecting ICA’s interpretation of probable cause as requiring a lesser quantum of proof than the preponderance of the evidence standard as an “unreasonabl[e]” “attempt to ‘water down’” the requirement).

11
People v. KEICHLERgreen
calctapp · 2005 · cited in 1 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 2013–2013
2 sentences

2013In re William L., 211 Ariz. 236, 238 , 119 P.3d 1039, 1041 (2005); People v. Keichler, 129 Cal.App.4th 1039, 1045 , 29 Cal.Rptr.3d 120, 124 (2005); People v. Carpenter, 885 P.2d 334, 336 (Colo.App.1994) (“[A] preponderance of the evidence is a sufficient and proper burden of persuasion in proceeding to establish restitution in criminal cases.

2013In re William L., 211 Ariz. 236, 238 , 119 P.3d 1039, 1041 (2005); People v. Keichler, 129 Cal.App.4th 1039, 1045 , 29 Cal.Rptr.3d 120, 124 (2005); People v. Carpenter, 885 P.2d 334, 336 (Colo.App.1994) (“[A] preponderance of the evidence is a sufficient and proper burden of persuasion in proceeding to establish restitution in criminal cases.

11
In Re William L.green
arizctapp · 2005 · cited in 1 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 2013–2013
2 sentences

2013In re William L., 211 Ariz. 236, 238 , 119 P.3d 1039, 1041 (2005); People v. Keichler, 129 Cal.App.4th 1039, 1045 , 29 Cal.Rptr.3d 120, 124 (2005); People v. Carpenter, 885 P.2d 334, 336 (Colo.App.1994) (“[A] preponderance of the evidence is a sufficient and proper burden of persuasion in proceeding to establish restitution in criminal cases.

2013In re William L., 211 Ariz. 236, 238 , 119 P.3d 1039, 1041 (2005); People v. Keichler, 129 Cal.App.4th 1039, 1045 , 29 Cal.Rptr.3d 120, 124 (2005); People v. Carpenter, 885 P.2d 334, 336 (Colo.App.1994) (“[A] preponderance of the evidence is a sufficient and proper burden of persuasion in proceeding to establish restitution in criminal cases.

11
State v. Kinnemangreen
washctapp · 2004 · cited in 1 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 2013–2013
1 sentence

2013Other jurisdictions have taken the position that, “[t]he State has the burden of establishing by a preponderance of the evidence a causal connection between the restitution requested and the crime with which the defendant is charged,” State v. Kinneman, 122 Wash.App. 850, 860 , 95 P.3d 1277, 1283 (2004).

11
State v. Romanogreen
haw · 2007 · cited in 1 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 2013–2013
2 sentences

2013In determining whether a defendant has proven his affirmative defense by a preponderance of the evidence, this court has stated, “The preponderance of the evidence standard directs the factfinder to decide whether ‘the existence of the contested fact is more probable than its nonexistence.’” State v. Romano, 114 Hawai'i 1, 8 , 155 P.3d 1102, 1109 (2007) (citations omitted).

2013In determining whether a defendant has proven his affirmative defense by a preponderance of the evidence, this court has stated, “The preponderance of the evidence standard directs the factfinder to decide whether ‘the existence of the contested fact is more probable than its nonexistence.’” State v. Romano, 114 Hawai'i 1, 8 , 155 P.3d 1102, 1109 (2007) (citations omitted).

11
People v. Carpentergreen
coloctapp · 1994 · cited in 1 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 2013–2013
1 sentence

2013In re William L., 211 Ariz. 236, 238 , 119 P.3d 1039, 1041 (2005); People v. Keichler, 129 Cal.App.4th 1039, 1045 , 29 Cal.Rptr.3d 120, 124 (2005); People v. Carpenter, 885 P.2d 334, 336 (Colo.App.1994) (“[A] preponderance of the evidence is a sufficient and proper burden of persuasion in proceeding to establish restitution in criminal cases.

11
State v. Spillnergreen
haw · 2007 · cited in 1 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 2010–2010
2 sentences

2010In addressing reasonable suspicion for an investigatory stop, the Hawai'i Supreme Court has favorably quoted language from the United States Supreme Court that "the likelihood of criminal activity need not rise to the level of probable cause, and it falls considerably short of satisfying a preponderance of the evidence standard." State v. Soillner, 116 Hawai'i 351, 358 , 173 P.3d 498, 505 (2007) (quoting United States v. Arvizu, 534 U.S. 266, 273-74 (2002)).

2010In addressing reasonable suspicion for an investigatory stop, the Hawai'i Supreme Court has favorably quoted language from the United States Supreme Court that "the likelihood of criminal activity need not rise to the level of probable cause, and it falls considerably short of satisfying a preponderance of the evidence standard." State v. Soillner, 116 Hawai'i 351, 358 , 173 P.3d 498, 505 (2007) (quoting United States v. Arvizu, 534 U.S. 266, 273-74 (2002)).

11
Doe II v. Roe IIgreen
hawapp · 1982 · cited in 1 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 2002–2002
11
State Ex Rel. Hausner v. Blackmangreen
kan · 1983 · cited in 1 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 2002–2002
11
People Ex Rel. Adams v. Kitegreen
illappct · 1977 · cited in 1 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 2002–2002
11
Shinn v. Edwin Yee, Ltd.green
haw · 1976 · cited in 1 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 1999–1999
11
Maui Ranch Estates Owners Ass'n v. County of Mauigreen
hawapp · 1986 · cited in 1 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 1999–1999
11
State v. Oliveragreen
haw · 1976 · cited in 1 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 1998–1998
11
Baehr v. Lewinred
haw · 1993 · cited in 1 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 1997–1997
11
Iddings v. Mee-Leegreen
haw · 1996 · cited in 1 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 1997–1997
11
Nakano v. Matayoshigreen
haw · 1985 · cited in 1 Hawaii opinions naming this issue, 1997–1997
11

Distinguished, questioned or overruled (0)

CaseNegativeCited
No negative-treatment citations attached to this issue in Hawaii. Read the followed side critically anyway.

Also cited on this issue (12)

CaseCitedYears
Coyle v. Compton green
hawapp · 1997
2 sentences

2011In Coyle, for example, the supreme court held that imposing the preponderance of the evidence standard at the TRO hearing, rather than the clear and convincing evidence standard, did not violate the defendant’s equal protection or substantive due process rights. 85 Hawai'i at 206-08 , 940 P.2d at 413-15 .

2011In Coyle, for example, the supreme court held that imposing the preponderance of the evidence standard at the TRO hearing, rather than the clear and convincing evidence standard, did not violate the defendant’s equal protection or substantive due process rights. 85 Hawai'i at 206-08 , 940 P.2d at 413-15 .

21999–2011
State v. Dathan Chung green
haw · 1993
1 sentence

2017Although the evidence need not be sufficient to support a conviction, see id., this court has concluded that the requirement of probable cause is at least as demanding as the preponderance of the evidence standard.

12017–2017
Grady v. Corbin red
scotus · 1990
2 sentences

2015Kalua's reliance on State v. Lessary, 75 Haw. 446 , 865 P.2d 150 (1994), and Grady v. Corbin, 495 U.S. 508 , 110 S.Ct. 2084 , 109 L.Ed.2d 548 (1990), is misplaced.

2015Kalua's reliance on State v. Lessary, 75 Haw. 446 , 865 P.2d 150 (1994), and Grady v. Corbin, 495 U.S. 508 , 110 S.Ct. 2084 , 109 L.Ed.2d 548 (1990), is misplaced.

12015–2015
State v. Lessary green
haw · 1994
2 sentences

2015Kalua's reliance on State v. Lessary, 75 Haw. 446 , 865 P.2d 150 (1994), and Grady v. Corbin, 495 U.S. 508 , 110 S.Ct. 2084 , 109 L.Ed.2d 548 (1990), is misplaced.

2015Kalua's reliance on State v. Lessary, 75 Haw. 446 , 865 P.2d 150 (1994), and Grady v. Corbin, 495 U.S. 508 , 110 S.Ct. 2084 , 109 L.Ed.2d 548 (1990), is misplaced.

12015–2015
State v. Kinneman green
washctapp · 2004
1 sentence

2013Other jurisdictions have taken the position that, “[t]he State has the burden of establishing by a preponderance of the evidence a causal connection between the restitution requested and the crime with which the defendant is charged,” State v. Kinneman, 122 Wash.App. 850, 860 , 95 P.3d 1277, 1283 (2004).

12013–2013
United States v. Sokolow green
scotus · 1989
2 sentences

2007Although an officer's reliance on a mere "`hunch'" is insufficient to justify a stop, Terry, . . . [392 U.S.] at 27[, 88 S.Ct. 1868 ], the likelihood of criminal activity need not rise to the level of probable cause, and it falls considerably short of satisfying a preponderance of the evidence standard, [ United States v. ] Sokolow, [ 490 U.S. 1 ,] 7[, 109 S.Ct. 1581 , 104 L.Ed.2d 1 (1989)].

2007Although an officer's reliance on a mere "`hunch'" is insufficient to justify a stop, Terry, . . . [392 U.S.] at 27[, 88 S.Ct. 1868 ], the likelihood of criminal activity need not rise to the level of probable cause, and it falls considerably short of satisfying a preponderance of the evidence standard, [ United States v. ] Sokolow, [ 490 U.S. 1 ,] 7[, 109 S.Ct. 1581 , 104 L.Ed.2d 1 (1989)].

12007–2007
Terry v. Ohio green
scotus · 1968
12007–2007
Illinois v. Gates green
scotus · 1983
12005–2005
State, Dept. of Social Services v. Pierre green
lactapp · 1994
12002–2002
United States v. Williams green
ca5 · 1994
11998–1998
Baehr v. Lewin red
haw · 1993
11997–1997
Jones v. United States green
scotus · 1983
11997–1997

Statutes the citing opinions construe

HI § Haw. Rev. Stat. § 134-7 (4) HI § Haw. Rev. Stat. § 709-906 (4) HI § Haw. Rev. Stat. § 571-46 (3) HI § Haw. Rev. Stat. § 586-1 (3) HI § Haw. Rev. Stat. § 586-4 (3) HI § Haw. Rev. Stat. § 586-5 (3) HI § Haw. Rev. Stat. § 706-646 (3) HI § Haw. Rev. Stat. § 707-701 (3) HI § Haw. Rev. Stat. § 803-5 (3)

Counted by distinct opinions that both name this issue and are annotated to the section; sections every opinion cites regardless of issue are not filtered here, so read the counts against the total above.

Where else courts name it

TX 474 (1939–2026) CA 349 (1967–2026) PA 323 (1982–2026) TN 300 (1980–2026) IL 168 (1967–2026) MI 137 (1980–2026) KY 132 (1978–2026) WA 128 (1971–2026) GA 126 (1983–2026) VA 124 (1922–2025) OH 117 (1984–2026) NC 91 (1982–2026) CO 88 (1982–2026) MD 87 (1971–2026) NY 87 (1973–2026) SC 83 (1909–2026) NJ 82 (1975–2026) FL 76 (1963–2026) LA 64 (1977–2019) CT 64 (1975–2026) WV 59 (1982–2026) UT 48 (1981–2025) MN 47 (1973–2026) KS 46 (1993–2026) DC 45 (1970–2026) AZ 39 (1981–2025) WY 39 (1979–2026) AK 36 (1977–2025) MA 36 (1978–2025) MO 36 (1993–2025) IN 36 (1980–2026) DE 34 (1972–2026) OR 31 (1975–2024) ME 29 (1974–2023) NV 28 (1980–2025) IA 28 (1980–2025) NM 28 (1978–2023) WI 27 (1981–2025) HI 27 (1989–2026) SD 23 (1975–2026) VT 22 (1983–2021) ND 18 (1981–2023) NH 18 (1982–2024) OK 17 (1976–2024) AL 16 (1992–2017) MS 16 (1988–2026) ID 13 (1992–2022) AR 11 (1955–2024) NE 10 (1985–2023) MT 9 (1973–2022) RI 5 (1991–2026) VI 3 (2011–2015)

Opinions by the citing court's state. A doctrine retained in one state and abandoned in another shows up here as a year span that stalls.

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